이 논문은 포스트모더니즘에 대한 책들을 간결하게 검토하는데, 이 작 업은 예이츠와 그의 포스트모던한 작품의 면모를 읽는데 도움이 될 수 있을 것이다 . 그런데, 모더니즘 혹은 포스모더니즘은 무엇인가? 한마디로 정의할 수 있는가? 아마도 어렵지 않을까? 나에게 이 질문을 던지면 나 역시 쉽게 답하지 못할 같다. 그래서 이 문제를 안고 책 몇권을 뒤적인다. 그래서 결국 이와 관련하여 제안을 하고 싶은데, 낭 만주의, 모던니즘, 포스모더니즘 등 -주의, 혹은 -이즘 대신에 문학사적으로 운동을 시 기(시대)구분 하는 것은 어떨까?

이 논문은 미술평론가 방근택(1929-1992)의 미술비평론을 고찰한다. 그는 1950년대 후반 이후 한국현대 추상미술의 이론화에 기여했고 이후 30년 넘게 활동하면서 3백편이 넘는 평문을 남긴 바 있다. 미술평론가에 대한 개념이 정립되지 않았던 척박한 시기에 평론가로서의 권위와 활동의 자유를 보장받지 못했음에도 고군분투하며 활동한 평론가이다. 이 논문은 그가 박서보의 도움으로 평론가로 데뷔한 후 서구 철학과 미술사 지식을 바탕으로 미술비평 또는 미술평론, 그리고 미술평론가의 필요성과 정당성을 설파하고 문예이론을 통해 후기구조주의와 포스트모더 니즘을 수용하기까지 시대별 변화를 분석하여 그에 대한 재평가를 시도한다. 그의 평문을 통해 시대별로 그가 주목했던 주제들, 즉 평론가의 역할을 부정하는 작가들과 제도, 미술시장의 자본, 그리고 후기자본주의 사회의 변화에 저항하는 평론과 평론가의 역할을 살펴본다.

This paper examines the characteristics of post-modern self-portrait photography. Characteristics of postmodernism associated with the “loss of centeredness,” such as the death of the author, interdisciplinarity, and intertextuality, brought about a number of changes within the self-portrait. The distinction between post-modern and modern self-portraiture can be characterized by the following qualities: appropriation, the use of photography, and the utilization of the human body as an art. The characteristics of post-modern self-portrait photography can be represented through the works of Cindy Sherman, Orlan, and Morimura Yasumasa. By presenting prototypical women in her works, Cindy Sherman not only represents images of those women, but also exposes her fictitious role in the work. She creates a distance between herself in the works and herself in reality and discloses a paternalistic gaze. Meanwhile, Orlan transforms her face into a distorted image and presents it as an alternative identity that is representative of postmodernism. She corrodes the standard concept of identity through plastic surgery and treats the face not as a place where the identity stays, but as a simple body part or fragment of skin. Orlan’s post-human face is malleable according to the artist’s desire to raise the issue of what the human face is, and opposes the structure of modernism. Morimura Yasumasa also appropriates images from masterpieces and presents a hybrid identity between Eastern and Western, male and female, original and replica, and subject and object. In order to dissect social prejudice, he puts forth every single structural dichotomy that coexists in his self-portrait and suppresses a strong ego. He also studies the relationship between ‘seeing’ and being ‘seen’ by trading the painter’s role from that of the subject to that of the object.

In recent studies of art historical methodology, such as Critical Terms for Art History and The Art of Art History, subjectivity, identity, abjection, and other terms have been placed safely in the genealogy of contemporary art history. This paper questions the contemporaneity in the story of contemporary art in our time in relation to two other critical terms that have been regularly cited by contemporary critics, not only in Euro-American fields but also in Korea. The terms are post-medium and postproduction, respectively, as used by Rosalind Krauss and Nicolas Bourriaud. This paper stems from the critical condition in which art criticism and theory have their power in the rise of neo-liberalism. But this paper does not deal with the contemporary as a chronological term for art history but rather examines the three critical terms—contemporaneity, post-medium, and postproduction—that have garnered scholarly attention. I would like to put aside postmodernism for the moment; I don’t disregard the postmodern condition although the death of postmodern critical terms has resulted in the loss of its polemical power in art worlds such as in exhibitions, etc. To look at “the postproduction in the age of post-medium age after postmodernism,” I first explore Krauss’s notion of post-medium because, unlike media artists like Lev Manovich and Peter Weibel, Krauss’s post-medium condition is different and insists on medium specificity. In this sense, Krauss has turned out to be another Greenberg in disguise. For her, photography and video are expanded mediums after Greenberg, because Krauss has spent her life explicating those mediums. Under the Cup, her recent publication, came out in 2011, and discusses her desire to defend medium-specificity against the intermedia of installation art found ubiquitously in international exhibitions and biennales. Her usage of post-medium has been taken up by Weibel as postmedia in a broader sense. But whether the post-medium condition or the postmedia age, we nonetheless enter the new age of the contemporary. Consequently, this paper questions what constitutes contemporaneity in our times. It is said that there is nothing new on earth, yet I find original artistic strategies among the younger generation in the postmedia age. The contemporary justifies its place in art fields and criticism by keeping its distance from postmodernism although we still find the remnants of postmodern artistic practices and theoretical foundations. By looking at materials written by Terry Smith, I would like to examine contemporaneity as a rhetoric where artists, critics, and curators endeavor to set up a new spirit of criticism, distant from the past of modernism and postmodernism. In discussions, modernism and postmodernism act as catalysts interacting with each other while justifying their own place. In conclusion, my paper reaches to delineate where the contemporary finds its place among artists’responses and working methods. It explores the postproduction of the Internet and the World Wide Web generations, where images become data rather than representation (of modernism) and appropriation (of postmodernism). This paper analyzes Bourriaud’s text, as well as relevant artists like Pierre Huyghe, Liam Gillick, and others. By examining the aforementioned critical terms, I would like to reconsider our own contemporary art in Korea, especially among young artists influenced by digital media and the World Wide Web in the 1990s.

The history of art during the first half of the last decade was founded the discussion with highly impressive and confident. The art might establish its unique area based on self recognition at that era. The self-confidence of modern art may be possible on enlightenment, which is the firm relationship for knowledge and reality. However the faith of modernism which shows rational tendency, objective, and the existence of universal knowledge has been drastically doubted and criticized thereafter. A internal ideological system which had leaded the modern art was exhausted. Postmodernism revolved to the dramatic openness leaning against the deoedipalizational confession. According to the dissipation of the vitality of modern art postmodern art has been evolved and then various phenomena which follow the trends has been emerged. The avant-garde and resisteive attribute of modern art was diluted fast due to the influx of popular culture. As time goes it can be attracted by spectacle taste than metaphysical peculiarity. It has to inevitably justified the drift of light and quick themes, contents, and images. Such as these phenomena realistically shows fact that postmodern art had been failed to open a new chapter of consilience which intermediates beauty and usual communication to overcome the solipsism of modernism. A trial to pursuit the opened esthetics conceived more ‘heroic’ ‘Star-Subject’ than before by dismantling the modern ‘Hero-Subject’. Postmodernism has been recorded as a regression of art, which is the technology of profound spirit that mitigates antagonism and confrontation and mediates mutual encountering of human being. Prevailing of postmodern freedom had been accompanied by popularity, osetentation consumption, marketing, gambling level exitement, mixtures of desires with price fluctuations. We witness ‘self-confinement’ and ‘lasting absence of exit’ phenomena in postmodernism ideology and practice. We have to deal postmodernism as an ‘ideology which closes the discussion for the future’ in the context of ‘absence of way’ at this point. We are going to investigate how postmodern ideology and practice takes part in the prospection beyond thereafter through discussion. We also pay attention to the ‘absence of prospection’ as a internal problem in itself nevertheless mention the three merge points such as tradition or memory, earthy thought, the self who confrontation others as the clue of prospecting thought which is allowing coming over postmodern absence.

Die Postmodeme wird als wichtiger Begriff venvendet, um die heutige Zeit zu beschreiben, besonders in der Philosophie und in der Kunst. Sie hat in vielen Bereichen unseres Lebens, wie z.B. der Architektur, Kultur, Film, Ballett, Religion, Politik und Mode ihre Wirkungskreise gezogen. Auch in der Musik des 20. Jh. wurde Postmodeme als ein wichtiges Pha¨nomen akzeptiert. Besonders zeichnet sich die musikalische Postmodeme aus durch ihre U¨benvindung der Kluft zwischen artifizieller Musik und Trivialmusik. In diesem Zusammenhant wird "Crossover" ein wichtiges Merkmal der Musik in unserer Zeit. In dieser Studie wurde versucht, aus dem Aspekt der musikalischen Postmodeme Crossover zu untersuchen. In der Moderne wurde die Tradition kritisch bea¨ugelt, was mit einem verlangen nach Neuem ausgedru¨ckt wurde. Hier war Kunst weniger ein Genussobjekt denn ein Erkenntnisobjekt, das ho¨here Werte wie <Wahrheit> und <Gesellschaftskritik> zu erkennen und zu erfu¨llen hatte. Diese Sichtweise teilten Komponisten wie auch das Publikum. Der Komponist schuf also ein Werk, dem er einen ho¨heren Sinn verlieh, wa¨hrend dem Publikwn abverlangt wurde, dass es diese Bedeuhmg erkennt und nachvollzieht. Dies fu¨hrte aber zu einer Zweiteilung der Kunst in eine hohe Kunst und eine niedere Kunst oder' auch Trivialkunst. Adomos Teilung der Musikkultur des 20. Jahrhunderts in Avantgarde und Kitsch bringt diese Situation auf den Punkt. Demnach na¨herte sich die Position der Kunst fu¨r die Kunst einem immer elita¨reren und akademischeren Denken, wa¨drend die Massenkultur dank der Vermarktung immer weiter verbreitet wurde, was einen tiefen Abgrund zwischen den beiden verursachte. Doch in der Postmodeme wurde dieses dichotomische Denken verurteilt. L. Fiedler Wckt dies so aus : "Die Vorstellung von einer Kunst fu¨r die 'Gebildeten' und einer Subkunst fu¨r die 'Ungebildeten' bezeugt den letzten U¨berrest einer a¨rgerlichen Unterscheidung innerhalb der industrialisierten Massengesellschaft, wie sie nur einer Klassengesellschafi zustiinde." Kunst in der Postmodeme ist kein Gegenstand des Erkennens, sondem ein a¨sthetisches Erlebnis an dem man teilhaben kann. Dies fihrte zur U¨berwindung des Abgrundes zwischen hoher und niederer Kunst. Ausdruck und Subjektivitat wurden die neuen Schlagworter fu¨r die Komponisten und gerade in letzter Zeit treten immer haufiger Crossover-Formen in Erscheinung, wie z.B. bei dem Pianisten Friedrich Gulda, der klassische Werke auf jazzige Weise improvisiert oder aber auch bei zahlreichen Konzerten, wo klassische Musk und Unterhaltungsmusik unter einem Dach und Fach gebracht werden. Diese Beispiele zeugen Air den Wandel im musikalischen Denken beztkglich einer A¨sthetisierung des Alltagsleben, was als Versuch gesehen wird, Kunst und Produkte der Kunstvermarktung zu erga¨nzen. In diesem Wandlung der musikalischen Anschauung wurde "Crossover" ein wichtiges Chamkterikum unser Zeit. Aber nach der Untersuchung von "Crossover" in artizifieller Musik wurde festgestellt, daß "Corssover" nur ein kleiner Teil der heutigen Musikkulur ist. Die sog. postmodeme Komponisten wie K. Penderecki, W. Rihm, G. Rochberg haben auf einer anderen Weise musikalische Postmodeme in seiner Komposition ausgedrcu¨ckt, und fast keine "Crossover"-Musik komponiert. Nir in dem Bereich der Unterhaltungsmusik la¨ßt sich mehrere Versuche zur U¨berwindung des Grabens zwischen artifizieller Musik und Unterhaltungsmusik finden. So ist es no¨tig, daß wir die Bedeutung von "Crossover" genau erkennen und nicht Ubertreiben.

Cross-Over as an aesthetic phenomenon is closely associated with postmodernism. So we have to return once again to the relation between modernism and postmodernism. Postmodemism especially relating to cross-over is defined as anti-modernism. Postmodernism as antimodemism considers modernism as too intelligent, difficult, elitisic art. Moreover modernism is no longer an actual artistic theory but just a past theory. Elitism of modernism is replaced by populism of postmodemism. Especially after 1980's, Crossover, characteristic of postmodernism as being oriented towards popular culture has been seen in every apect of life. For example, crossover between high culture and popular culture, between history and fiction, even between image and reality. Postmodemism is a principal logic in society where every hierarchy is demolished and an aesthetic version of democracy, pluralism and relativism. In this essay, Postmodernsim relating to crossover is regarde and interpreted as an American cultural theory. So it is a very serious problem that Postmodemism as a national and local theory is accepted as if it is a global cultural theory. The call for modernism in the middle of 19th century was in connection with the question of the status of art in the capitalism. In the capitalist society where every human action and meaning was reduced to money, modernism chose to isolate itself from contemporary society and dedicated itself to art. It limited its main question to the artistic experiment. The Art Cult of Modernism was a resistent activity of modem artists against their society. In that process, art inevitably became esoteric, ambiguous and difficult. Because of its difficulty, thus, Modernism is accessible only to a few spectators. In that situation, numerous constructions of museums and concert halls for industrial and financial aim made Modernism much expensive commodity. The others of Modernism, for example, female artists, homosexual artists and artists of colored races criticized occidental, white, male centrality of Modernism. They argued Modernism is not a universal but only a local aesthetic theory. Postmodemism as one of the others of Modernism appears in criticizing those negative aspects of Modernism. It is argued that Postmodemism is not only a new cultural and aesthetic logic but also a new historical theory. But the reason why this essay interprets postmodernism as an American theory or a kind of americanism lies in the fact that the program of postmodernism itself is solely American. In America as multicultural nation, there can be various heterogeneous cultures, and even they can coexist peacefully. America has no dominant high culture handed down fiom old times. American culture is represented as popular culture. So Postmodernism as affirming lightness, joke, style and appearance instead of heaviness, reality and meaning can be propagated in America. It is natural that Postmodemism is an American theory. But it is not a local theory. Postmodemism as Americanism or cultural imperialism wants to homogenize cultures of entire world and at last dominate that world mentally. Postmodernism is cultural logic of political dominance of all the world by America. In conclusion, we must call crossover in question instead of treating it solely as an aesthetic phenomenon.

Postmodern criminology is based upon the belief that past criminological approaches have failed to realistically assess the true causes of crime and have therefore failed offer workable solutions for crime control or if they have, that such theories and solutions may have been appropriate at one time but no longer apply to the postmodern era. It challenges and debunks existing perspectives on crime and crime control. Upon such assumptions, the article examines how we conceive of penal policy or prison in contrast to how it is conventionally understood, and outlines what an alternative direction might look like. It introduces peacemaking criminology, constitutive criminology and restorative justice for the development of a new “replacement discourse”. Peacemaking criminology holds that crime-control agencies and the citizens they serve should work together to alleviate social problems and human suffering and thus reduce crime. The main purpose of criminology is to promote a peaceful, just society rather than standing on empirical analysis of data, by drawing its inspiration from religious and philosophical teachings. Constitutive criminology builds on the belief that crime and its control cannot be separated from the totality of the structural and cultural contexts in which it is produced. Given this interrelated nature of social structure and human agents and their social and cultural productions in the coproduction of crime, it trys to promote a just policy of reconstruction through replacement discourse which is directed toward the dual process of deconstructing prevailing structures of meaning and displacing them with new conceptions, which convey alternative meaning. Restorative justice has been practiced as an alternative to existing justice system beyond philosophical teaching or religious ideology in various countries. It seeks to attain a balance between the legitimate needs of the community, the offender, and the victim. The healing of all parties involves many aspects, ranging from victim assistance initiatives to legislation supporting victim's compensation. It follows such guidelines that community are victims, we use punishment to pay back the community, we combine punishment with help, and we give community a voice in shaping restorative sanctions.

이 논문은 20세기 후반 건축을 선두로 문학, 미술, 철학등 각 예술 분야에 대두된 포스트모더니즘의 미학을 중심으로 동양 현대음악의 시간적 구조를 살펴본 연구이다. 음악에 있어서 포스트모더니즘은 르네상스 이후 서양음악의 불문율로 여겨왔던 "목적 지향적 시간론(goal-oriented notion of time)"을 파기하고, 새로운 시간개념의 도입을 가능케 한 중요한 논리적 배경이 되었다. 특히 동양적 에토스(ethos)에 근거한 동양 현대 작곡가들의 작품들은 흔히 서양적 관점에서 보면 "목적 지향적 시간구조"의 결여로 이해되어져, 서양 예술론을 적용하기보다는 "이국적 정서(exoticism)" 혹은 "오리엔탈리즘"으로 이해되어져 왔다. 그러나 이 새로운 음악적 시간개념은 동-서양 현대작곡가의 작품을 하나의 통일된 예술론으로 이해할 수 있는 중요한 인식변화를 가져왔다. 이 논문을 통하여 필자는 포스트모던 건축학자 로보트 스턴(Robert Stern)의 "전통적 (Traditional) 포스트모더니즘과 분리파적(Schismatic) 포스트모더니즘론," 레오날드 마이어의 "비목적론적 시간론(NOn-teleology)"등을 바탕으로 포스트모더니즘의 한 시간적 특성을 "시간의 해방(the Emancipation of time)"으로 정의하였다. 한편, 동양철학이나 예술에 나타난 시간적 구조는 "순화적 시간(Circular Time)"과 "초월적 시간(Transcendental Time)"으로 구분 짓고, 그 들의 이중적 혹은 다중적 사용-시간의 이중성(Double Perception of Time)을 서양 포스트모더니즘 시간 구조와 비교, 고찰하였다. 필자는 이 논제를 위하여 일본의 도-루 타케미츠(Toru Takemitsu), 한국의 필자 자신, 중국의 탄 둔(Tan Dun)등 극동의 세 작곡가를 선택하여, 그들 작품에 나타난 음악적 시간구조를 분석하였다. 즉, 이 세 동양작곡가들 작품에 나타난 시간적 특성을 중심으로 그들의 창작과정이나 작품, 음악어법 등을 포스트모니즘이라는 새로운 시각으로 재조명하였다.

Since 1960, the change of architectural trend was dominated by two factors ; the one, the introduction of theory of language (including semantic, syntactic, pragmatic, linguistic, semiotic, structuralism, post-structurism) in design concept, the other, the adaption of high technology in building construction. In particular, the theory of language played an important role in the emergence of new tendency, which could be the alternative of modern architecture. Post-modernism and Typology in the 1960-70s, Deconstructivism in the 1980s and 'Folding' architecture in the 1990s, have continually borrowed a theoretical base from the thee of language. Placing the focus on the relation of contemporary architecture and theory of language with the interdisciplinary view, this study comes to the conclusion that the diverse architectural tendencies since 1960 depend on the 'champ d'enonce', which Michel Foucault, French philosopher, defined in his <Archeology du savoir>. The writings of many architects, like Robert Venturi, Micheal Graves, Aldo Rossi, Peter Eisenman, Rem Koolhaas, Bernard Tschumi, Gerg Lynn demonstrate our conclusion. This is an important finding which make possible consistent understanding about contemporary architecture.