국내 중·저준위 방사성폐기물은 영구적 격리를 위해 처분장에 매립하고 있으며 그 위치는 경주에 있다. 이러한 방 사성폐기물의 영구적인 격리를 위한 처분시설은 공학적 방벽과 자연 방벽으로 구성되어 있으며 자연 방벽을 특성을 파악 하기 위하여 한국원자력환경공단에서는 2006년부터 부지특성조사를 수행하였고, 이후 부지감시 및 조사계획에 따른 감시 를 수행하여 부지특성의 변화를 지속적으로 확인하고 있다. 중저준위 방폐장의 수리지화학적 환경은 자연 방벽의 평가를 위해 중요한 요소로 손꼽히고 있으나 동해와 가까운 경주의 지역적 특성상 해수의 영향을 반드시 고려해야 한다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 처분 부지의 지하수 관정 7개 및 관정의 심도별 수질 자료를 취합해 지하수 자료 총 30개를 해수 2개소와 비교 분석하여 수리지화학적 환경을 해석하였다. 분석 자료는 수질 10개 항목(온도, EC, HCO3, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, SiO2)을 2017년 3분기부터 2022년 3분기까지 총 5년간 20회의 자료를 활용하였다. 특히, EC, HCO3, Na, Cl의 농도 변화 를 통해 연구 지역의 배경 농도 및 관정의 구간별 해수의 영향을 파악하였으며, 시계열 군집 분석을 통해 담수, 기수, 해 수의 분류를 시도하였다. 그 결과, 기존의 모니터링 방법으로는 확인하지 못한 부지내 수리지화학적 변화를 제시하였다.

본 연구의 목적은 경주국립공원 소금강지구 일대에 분포하는 관속식물상을 조사 및 분석하여 국립공원 내 자연자원 관리 및 생물다양성 증진에 필요한 생태정보를 제공하기 위해 수행되었다. 현장조사는 2017년 7월부터 2022년 7월까지 총 10회 수행하였다. 관속식물상의 분류군 현황은 116과 325속 458종 8아종 24변종 7품종 5잡종 1재배변종의 503분류군으로 요약되었다. 희귀식물은 쥐방울덩굴, 가침박달, 솜양지꽃, 자라풀, 꽃창포 5분류군이었다. 한국특산식물은 은사시나무, 해변싸리, 병꽃나무, 백운산원추리 4분류군으로 나타났다. 식물구계학적 특정식물은 23분류군으 로, Ⅳ등급 1분류군, Ⅲ등급 및 Ⅱ등급 각 4분류군, Ⅰ등급은 14분류군이었다. 침입외래식물은 소리쟁이, 미국가막사리, 들묵새 등 63분류군이며, 생태계교란종은 환삼덩굴, 애기수영, 도깨비가지, 돼지풀, 서양금혼초, 가시상추, 미국쑥부쟁이 7분류군이었다.

KORAD (Korea Radioactive Waste Agency, http://www.korad.or.kr) has stored slightly contaminated ascon (asphalt coated concrete mixture) that was introduced to Gyeongju repository about a decade ago waiting for a final disposal. It is believed to be mainly contaminated by radioisotope 137Cs due to impurities introduced from the outside during the ascon manufacturing process. We studied characteristics of the radioactive waste to see whether this material would be proper enough to be disposed in Gyeongju LILW repository or be other ways to reduce the disposal volume including self-disposal before its final disposal otherwise. KORAD looked into the properness of characteristics of ascon in terms of WAC (Waste Acceptance Criteria) documented by KORAD that includes general chemical and physical properties of asphalt, density, size of grains, content of organic material and possibility of existence of chelate materials that qualitatively limited to be disposed by the criteria. And other associated characteristics such as gas generation and bio degradation were also investigated. Based on the data obtained from the study, we proposed various plausible solutions in associated with operational and disposal safety and economic view points. This study will be used for KORAD’s decision on how to control and safely dispose the spent ascon within a reasonable time period. And also those experiences may be applied for other LILW issues that require treatment or conditioning of radioactive wastes in the future.

Th(IV) is a stable actinide that can act as a chemical analogue of U(IV) and Pu(IV), which are important radionuclides in safety assessments of deep geological repositories (DGR). Therefore, to understand the geochemical behaviour of U(IV) and Pu(IV), batch sorption of Th(IV) onto crystalline rocks were performed in oxidising conditions. The distribution coefficients (Kd) of Th(IV) were of particular interest. Gyeongju fresh groundwater (GF) and Gyeongju brackish groundwater (GB) were obtained at the Gyeongju Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste (LILW) Disposal Facility. Crystalline granite (gr) and biotite gneiss (bg) were collected in Gyeongju and Gwacheon respectively and were grounded to a particle size smaller than 150 μm. Sorption samples were continuously shaken for 7 days under 200 rpm at 25°C. The liquid-to-solid ratio (V/m) was 200 L·kg-1. Th(IV) concentrations of the sorption samples were determined by UV-Vis-NIR absorption colorimetry from the formation of Th(IV)-arsenazo III complexes. Although the method allowed the initial Th(IV) concentrations to be determined, the final Th(IV) concentrations fell below the limit of detection (LOD), 6.27×10-9 mol·L-1. Taking the LOD as the final concentrations, conservative Kd were calculated to be 4,410 L·kg-1 for GF-gr and GF-bg, and 7,830 L·kg-1 for GB-gr and GB-bg. The result indicates a strong sorption affinity of Th(IV) onto granite and biotite gneiss within Gyeongju groundwater, suggesting a similar behaviour for U(IV) and Pu(IV). Furthermore, comparison of the conservative Kd obtained from the experiment were compared with existing Kd values of Th(IV). Such analysis and comparison of Th(IV) Kd in various types of groundwater could help locate the optimal site for a DGR in South Korea.

In order to reduce the area of the high-level radioactive waste (HLW) repository, a buffer material with high thermal conductivity is required. This is because if the thermal conductivity of the buffer material is high, the distance between the disposal tunnels and the deposition holes can be reduced. Sand, which is a natural material and has higher thermal conductivity than bentonite, is added to bentonite to develop an enhanced buffer material. For the sand-bentonite mixture, it is important which sand to use and how much to add because an enhanced buffer material should satisfy both hydraulic (H) and mechanical (M) performance criteria while improving thermal conductivity (T). In this study, we would like to show what type of sand and how much sand should be added to develop an enhanced buffer material by adding sand to Gyeongju bentonite, a representative bentonite in Korea. For this purpose, the thermal conductivity, hydraulic conductivity, and swelling pressure of the sand-Gyeongju bentonite mixture according to the sand addition rate were measured. It is more efficient to use silica sand with smaller particles than Jumunjin sand which is a representative sand in Korea as an additive for an enhanced buffer material than using the Jumunjin sand. In order for the sand-Gyeongju bentonite buffer material to satisfy both the hydraulic and mechanical performance criteria as a buffer material while increasing the thermal conductivity, it is judged that the optimum dry density is 1.7 g/cm3 at least and the optimum sand addition rate is 10% at most.

Gyeongju radioactive waste repository has been operated to dispose low and intermediate level radioactive waste in Korea since 2016. Currently, only deep geological disposal facility (1st) is in operation, surface disposal facility (2nd) is scheduled to operate from 2024. As a result, the annual amount of radioactive waste that can be disposed of at deep geological disposal facilities and surface disposal facilities is almost determined. According to this result, it was possible to derive the total annual disposal amount to dispose of all radioactive waste at the Gyeongju repository after landfill disposal facility (3rd) construction. To evaluate it, a predictive model has been designed and radioactive waste generation, storage, and disposal data were input. The predictive model is based on system dynamics, which is useful to analyze the correlation between input variables. As a result of analysis, radioactive waste generation amount and maximum annual radioactive waste disposal were predicted to reach 741,615 drum and 17,030 drum per year respectively. From these results, it seems that the expansion of radioactive waste acceptance system or temporary storage is necessary.

This study introduces the licensing process carried out by the regulatory body for construction and operation of the 2nd phase low level radioactive waste disposal facility in Gyeongju. Also, this study presents the experience and lessons learned from this regulatory review for preparing the license review for the next 3rd phase landfill disposal facility. Korea Radioactive Waste Agency (KORAD) submitted a license application to Nuclear Safety and Security commission (NSSC) on December 24, 2015 to obtain permit for construction and operation of the national engineered shallow land disposal facility at Wolsong, Gyeongju. NSSC and Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS) started the regulatory review process with an initial docket review of the KORAD application including Safety Analysis Report, Radiological Environmental Report and Safety Administration Rules. After reflecting the results of the docket review, the safety review of revised 10 application documents began on November 29, 2016. Total 856 queries and requests for additional information were elicited by thorough technical review until November 16, 2021. As the Gyeongju and Pohang earthquakes occurred in September 2016 and November 2017, respectively, the seismic design of the disposal facility for vault and underground gallery was enhanced from 0.2 g to 0.3 g and the site safety evaluation including groundwater characteristics was re-investigated due to earthquake-induced fault. Also, post-closure safety assessments related to normal/abnormal/human intrusion scenarios were re-performed for reflecting the results of site and design characteristics. Finally, NSSC decided to grant a license of the 2nd phase low level radioactive waste disposal facility under the Nuclear Safety Laws in July 2022. This study introduces important issues and major improvements in terms of safety during the review process and presents the lessons learned from the experience of regulatory review process.

Glass wool, the primary material of insulation, is composed of glass fibers and is used to insulate the temperature of steam generators and pipes in nuclear power plants. Glass fiber is widely adopted as a substitute for asbestos classified as a carcinogen. The insulations used in nuclear power plants are classified as radioactive waste and most of the insulation is Very Low-Level Waste (VLLW). It is packaged in a 200 L drum the same as a Dry Active Waste (DAW). In the case of the insulations, it is packaged in a vinyl bag and then charged into the drum for securing additional safety because of the fine particle size of the fiberglass. A safety assessment of the disposal facility should be considered to dispose of radioactive waste. As a result of analyzing overseas Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC), there is no case that has a separate limitation for glass fiber. Also, in order to confirm that glass fibers can be treated in the same manner as DAW, research related to the diffusion of glass fibers into the environment was conducted in this paper. It was confirmed that the glass fiber was precipitated due to the low flow velocity of groundwater in the Gyeongju radioactive waste repository and did not spread to the surrounding environment due to the effect of the engineering barrier. Therefore, the glass fiber has no special issue and can be treated in the same way as a DAW. In addition, it can be disposed of in the disposal facility by securing sufficient radiological safety as VLLW.

Deep geological disposal is generally accepted to be the most practical approach to handling radioactive wastes. Bentonite has been considered as a buffer material in deep geological disposal repositories (DGR) for high-level radioactive wastes. Evaluating the effect of short-term bentonite alteration on EBS performance has limitations in safety assessment over thousands of years. Information on bentonite characteristics under various conditions obtained from natural systems can be used to evaluate long-term safety of bentonite buffer. The purpose of this study was to investigate mineralogical and physicochemical characteristics of bentonite in the Naah mine located in Yangnam-myeon, Gyeongju-si for a natural analogue of the bentonite barrier in DGR. A total of 15 samples were collected at regular intervals from the bentonite layer and andesitic lapilli tuff (i.e., parent rock) at the boundary with the bentonite layer. The bentonite layer is located at a depth of about 1 m below the ground surface. Each sample was separated into particles < < 75 μm and particles < 2 μm through grinding and sedimentation processes. The separated subsamples were characterized mineralogically and physiochemically using various analytic techniques. Bentonite samples have a similar SiO2/Al2O3 ratio to the parent rock and a lower (Na+K)/Si ratio than the parent rock, indicating depletion of alkali components during bentonitization. The parent rock and bentonite samples have similar mineral composition (i.e., quartz, feldspars, opal-cristobalite-tridymite and montmorillonite). Results of XRD analysis on the randomly distributed particles < 2 μm indicate that bentonite is mostly composed of Ca-montmorillonite, which is a typical dioctahedral smectite. Results of FTIR and VNIR analysis indicate that montmorillonite contained in bentonite is Al-dioctahedral montmorillonite, and Al is substituted with Mg in some octahedron units. The mineralogical and physicochemical characteristics are similar regardless of sampling location. These results suggest that bentonite potentially exposed to weathering, located near the ground surface, has hardly altered.

The structural integrity of concrete silos is important from the perspective of long-term operation of radioactive waste repository. Recently, the application of acoustic emission (AE) is considered as a promising technology for the systematic real-time health monitoring of concrete-like brittle material. In this study, the characteristics of AE wave propagation through concrete silo of Gyeongju radioactive waste repository were evaluated under the effects of groundwater and temperature for the quantitative damage assessment. The attenuation coefficients and absolute energies of AE waves were measured for the temperature cases of 15, 45, 75°C under dry and saturated concrete specimens, which were manufactured based on the concrete mix same as that of Gyeongju concrete silo. The geometric spreading and material loss were taken into account with regard to the wave attenuation coefficient. The attenuation coefficient shows a decreasing pattern with temperature rise for both dry and saturated specimens. The AE waves in saturated condition attenuate faster than those in dry condition. It is found that the effect of water content has a greater impact on the wave attenuation than the temperature. The results from this study will be used as valuable information for estimating the quantitative damage at the location micro-cracks are generated rather than the AE sensor location.

The chelating agent and cellulose generated during the operating and decommissioning of a NPP’s form organic complexing compounds. That is accelerate the migration of radionuclide and have a bad influence of LILW disposal site. In this study, the GoldSim (RT module) program was used for the effects of radionuclide migration by organic complex compounds as described above. A scenario was derived for evaluation, and a conceptual design (Concept Art) of the GoldSim model was performed. 1) Derivation of the scenario. For the scenario, we selected a groundwater flow scenario in which groundwater flows in and radionuclides flow out after a lapse of time after the operation of the LILW disposal site in Gyeongju is closed. The inflowing groundwater comes into contact with radioactive waste and the radionuclides dissolve. The dissolved nuclides move past the drum and out of the disposal vessel due to the advection phenomenon. Radionuclides spilled from the disposal vessel pass through the silo internal filler (crushed stone) and reach the engineering barrier concrete. Radionuclides from degraded concrete are scenarios that move along the flow of groundwater to the near and far. 2) Radionuclide migration concept design. The radionuclide movement section was largely designed with Inner (Inside the silo), Near and Far. (A) Inner (Inside the silo) This section is where radionuclides move from the radiation source to the engineering barrier (silo). The detailed migration path was designed to allow radioactive nuclides to flow out and move to waste drums, solidified matrix of indrum, disposal vessel fillers, disposal vessels, silo fillers (crushed stones), and engineered barriers (concrete). The LILW disposal site in Gyeongju has a total of 6 silos. Each of the 6 silos was modeled and designed in consideration of the structural information and positional impact. (B) Near & Far. In generally design, the near is form source term to engineered barrier and far is beyond the engineered barrier. In this study, the near and far designed by radionuclide in the section from the beyond the engineering barrier (silo) to the sea through the groundwater flow through the natural rock. Especially in the case of near, the design was made by applying the position of the natural rock sampling drill hole.

본 연구는 머신러닝 기법을 토대로 15개 환경 변수를 활용하여 소나무재선충병의 위험지역 분포를 예측하였다. 연구는 최대 엔트로피 모델을 머신러닝 기법으로 활용하였고, 연구 지역은 경주이며 연구 기간은 2018∼2020년이다. 모델의 평가에는 AUC(area under the curve)를 이용하였다. 연구 지역에서 소나무재선충병의 감염목 핵심 분포 지역은 2018년 대비 2019년과 2020년에 각각 2.5배와 4.7배 확대되었다. 소나무재선충병의 감염목 분포 추정 모델의 AUC는 모든 해에 최소 0.86 이상이었다. 모델에서 가장 중요한 변수는 직전 해의 감염목 근접도 이었다. 지형과 도로와의 인접성, 목조건물 인접성, 5월 평균 기온도 중요한 변수이었다. 인간 활동과 매개충의 생장 환경이 소나무재선충병의 공간적 분포에 중요한 역할을 한다는 것을 의미한다. 나아가 연구의 결과는 감염목 분포 정보의 지속적인 구축과 공유가 소나무재선충병 예방을 위한 정책과 연구에 중요하다는 것을 시사한다.

본 연구는 경주시 가로변의 침입외래식물을 조사, 분석하여 가로경관 및 조경수관리에 필요한 기초 자료를 제공하는데 목적이 있다. 분류군수는 24과 69속 94종 1변종 등 95분류군으로 요약되었다. 원산지 분석 결과, 아프리카 2분류군, 오스트레일리아 1분류군, 아시아 5분류군, 유라시아 8분류군, 유럽 40분류군, 북아메리카 26분류군, 남아메리카 6분류군, 열대아메리카 7분류군이었다. 귀화도의 경우 1등급 9분류군, 2등급 22분류군, 3등급 28분류군, 4등급 9분류군, 5등급 27분류군이며, 이입시기는 1기와 3기 각 39분류군, 2기 17분류군이었다. 전국확산 예상종은 콩다닥냉이, 울산도깨비바늘, 만수국아재비, 큰김의털 등 13분류군이었다. 생활형 분석 결과, 교목 2분류군, 관목 1분류군, 지표식물 6분류군, 반지중식물 22분류군, 지중식물 5분류군, 일년생 식물 59분류군으로 나타났다. 생태계교란생물은 애기수영, 가시박, 도깨비가지, 돼지풀, 서양금혼초, 가시상추, 미국쑥부쟁이 7분류군이었다.

The stochastic method is applied to simulate strong ground motions at seismic stations of seven metropolises in South Korea, creating an earthquake scenario based on the causative fault of the 2016 Gyeongju earthquake. Input parameters are established according to what has been revealed so far for the causative fault of the Gyeongju earthquake, while the ratio of differences in response spectra between observed and simulated strong ground motions is assumed to be an adjustment factor. The calculations confirm the applicability and reproducibility of strong ground motion simulations based on the relatively small bias in response spectra between observed and simulated strong ground motions. Based on this result, strong ground motions by a scenario earthquake on the causative fault of the Gyeongju earthquake with moment magnitude 6.5 are simulated, assuming that the ratios of its fault length to width are 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1. The results are similar to those of the empirical Green’s function method. Although actual site response factors of seismic stations should be supplemented later, the simulated strong ground motions can be used as input data for developing ground motion prediction equations and input data for calculating the design response spectra of major facilities in South Korea.

This study is a case study of system improvement measures for urban regeneration of the historical and cultural environment. The example areas are Hwangnam and Inwang Hanok districts in Gyeongju City, which operate various systems to solve the urban decline problem caused by the historical and cultural environment regulations. The subjects of this study are resident support programs and district unit planning systems under the advanced promotion system established in the case area. As research methods, literature studies, field surveys, and in-depth interviews were conducted. Through this, the background and purpose of introduction of each system, major plan contents, and problems of the system application process were analyzed. This study drew the following implications through case studies. First, in order to more effectively promote the urban regeneration of the historical and cultural environment, it is necessary to improve the related systems in an integrated and systematic manner. Second, in order to resolve the policy distrust of local residents in the historical, cultural and environmental management system, a wider variety of planned alternatives to narrow the difference in interests between the public and private sectors should be presented.

This study examines the Gyeongju Seokguram Grotto restoration project (1961-1962) by architect Kim Chung Up (1922-1988) and introduces the documents he wrote at the time of planning. The study highlights Kim’s Plan attempt to adopt Buckminster Fuller’s idea of the Geodesic Dome, while inheriting the architect Pai Ki Hyung’s previous design plan which was nullified. As Seokguram Grotto’s water leak and deterioration issues have been brought up, the four-times survey was carried out by experts team between 1958 and 1960, under Ministry of Education’s direction. Pai designed an initial restoration plan based on the survey’s result, which was a double-dome structure with a concrete film on the outer periphery as a way to protect Seokguram Grotto in January 1961. However, as drawbacks, such as the heavy load of the concrete dome, and non-installation of entrance hall, have been indicated in the review process, the Cultural Properties Committee rejected the plan. Subsequently, Kim was appointed as the supervisor of the second restoration project. Kim drew up a process management schedule to be implemented from August 1961 to December 1963 and designed the conception plans for the second restoration design. This study analyzes Kim’s Plan by examining sketches, site plans, floor plans, and sections. Kim planned to maintain the idea of the double-dome structure proposed by Pai while applying Buckminster Fuller’s idea of the Geodesic Dome. Kim planned to lighten the dome structure by applying a steel-frame Geodesic Dome so that the dome structure could be supported by its own. The study is expected to reclaim the omitted parts from Seokguram Grotto's historical description and Kim's careers.

고대 국가에서 가장 중요한 재원은 조세로 거둔 곡물이며 이를 보관하기 위한 창고는 주로 산성 등에서 확인되고 있다. 당시 금석문과 산성에서 출토된 목간 내용으로 볼 때, 사찰 안에 창고가 존재했고, 산성 내 창고에는 보리와 같은 곡물을 60섬(石) 단위로 일정하게 관리했음을 알 수 있다. 이번에 경주 성건동 500-18번지 유적에서 조사된 다 수의 대호를 매납한 대형 건물지는 삼랑사 안에 마련된 창고로 장류와 같은 액상식품과 쌀 등을 보관하던 창고로 추정된다. 성건동 창고유적에서 확인된 대형 창고는 <매호식 건물>로 구분되며 건물 안에 대호를 안전하게 관리하기 위해서 일정한 높이로 흙을 성토한 부분이 존재하고 있는 점이 특징이다. 이 성토부에서는 대호를 절반 정도 묻어둔 모습과 파손된 대호를 수시로 교체한 모습이 확인되며, 대호 위에 토제 뚜껑을 사용한 점은 저장물에 대한 보관관리가 상시적으로 이루어 졌음을 알려준다. 창고 유적에서 출토된 국자는 청동제와 목제 또는 조개껍질로 만들어 사용했는데, 보관중인 저장품이 변질되지 않도록 관리하기 위해서 필요에 따라서 다른 재질의 국자를 사용한 것으로 볼 수 있다. 대호 안에서 출토된 숯으로 보아 삼국시대부터 장류를 담글 때 백탄을 사용했을 가능성이 있다. 이는 당시 식생활 모습을 살펴보는데 있어서 중요한 단서가 될 것이다. 당시 창고유적과 비교한 결과 경주 성건동 500-18번지 유적의 창고건 물은 삼랑사와 관련된 저장시설로 생각되며, 당시 황룡사, 실상사 등 당대 사찰 내 위치한 창고 모습을 알려주는 점에서 의미가 크다. 그리고 이러한 창고가 운영되기 위해서는 국가나 관청의 관리가 존재했음을 알려주므로, 향후 조사가 확대된다면 창고의 구조에 따른 차이가 확인될 것으로 판단된다.

A safety assessment of radioactive waste repositories is a mandatory requirement process because there are possible radiological hazards owing to radionuclide migration from radioactive waste to the biosphere. For a reliable safety assessment, it is important to establish a parameter database that reflects the site-specific characteristics of the disposal facility and repository site. From this perspective, solubility, a major geochemical parameter, has been chosen as an important parameter for modeling the migration behavior of radionuclides. The solubilities were derived for Am, Ni, Tc, and U, which were major radionuclides in this study, and on-site groundwater data reflecting the operational conditions of the Gyeongju low and intermediate level radioactive waste (LILW) repository were applied to reflect the site-specific characteristics. The radiation dose was derived by applying the solubility and radionuclide inventory data to the RESRAD-OFFSITE code, and sensitivity analysis of the dose according to the solubility variation was performed. As a result, owing to the low amount of radionuclide inventory, the dose variation was insignificant. The derived solubility can be used as the main input data for the safety assessment of the Gyeongju LILW repository in the future.