Bullying among secondary school students has become one of the most disturbing issues in Nigeria. A variety of bullying behaviour abounds with their attendant negative consequences. This study investigated students’ attitudes towards bullying, environments in which bullying takes place and the extent of their involvement in bullying behaviours. The sample comprised 592 senior secondary students in Owerri metropolis who completed the Attitude to Bullying Rating Scale (ABRS), Checklist on Environments of Bullying (CEB), and Involvement in Bullying Rating Scale (IBRS). The findings indicate that a majority of students (67.57%) exhibited an inappropriate attitude toward bullying. Bullying was found to be prevalent among senior secondary school students in Owerri. Of the total number of students, 57.43% were involved as victims, 68.92% were involved as bullies, while 74.66% were involved as bystanders On the nature of bullying, social bullying ranked highest (82.94%), followed by physical bullying (81.1%) and verbal bullying (64%). With regards to the environments where bullying occurs, the study found that bullying can take place anywhere in the school and outside the school, however, the prominent places include the classroom (without the teacher), school play grounds, corridors, toilet ends, school canteens and on the way home. While a greater number of the male students were involved in physical bullying, more females were involved in verbal bullying. It is recommended that anti-bullying campaign be mounted in the secondary schools.

Green crowdfunding – fundraising for green initiatives – has become a growing source of alternative finance for sustainable entrepreneurs. The current paper explores the business model of green crowdfunding from three perspectives, i.e. funders, founders and platform. We pay special attention to how green crowdfunding extends consumers‘ involvement in sustainable economy.

Introduction Globalization not only increases human mobility, but changes the relationship between international migrants and their country of origin. With improved transportation systems and new technologies, migrants can stay connected to their homeland in multiple ways. In the past, it was costly and time-consuming for migrants to "keep in touch" with their homeland. Thus, the ability to assimilate into the culture and lifestyle of the mainstream society was important (Alba & Nee, 2003; Portes & Zhou, 1993). At the same time, migrants and minority groups also form ethnic enclaves (e.g., Chinatown, Little Italy) where they can maintain the culture and traditions of "home" and preserve a part of their cultural identity (Portes & Manning, 1986). Contemporary migrants, however, live in a transnational social field (Louie, 2006). They can easily communicate with their friends and family back home. Even if they reside in rural areas, most goods from the old country can be found in the new country. Migrants can shop online for the groceries, books, fashion, beauty products, kitchenware, etc. from their homeland. They can listen to hit songs in their native language, keep up with the major news events, follow the newest TV series, cheer for their favorite sports teams, watch live election results, and more—almost as if they have never left. Traveling back to the homeland is one important way for migrants to main transnational ties (Haller & Landolt, 2005). This type of travel is commonly known as diaspora tourism (Coles & Timothy, 2004), VFR tourism (Uriely, 2010), and roots tourism (Maruyama & Stronza, 2010). Migrants may visit the homeland for various reasons, including: leisure, business, local food, culture and heritage, quest, retain ties, finding oneself, roots-seeking, personal identity, connection with place, obligation to ancestors, recovery of social identity, and family togetherness (Kluin & Lehtom, 2012; Li & McKercher, 2016; Murdy, Alexander, & Bryce, 2018; Ray & McCain, 2012). Given that contemporary migrants can engage in transnational practices in the host society, and take part in various types of leisure activities that are related to the culture and lifestyle of "home," the question is: do migrants still feel the need to visit the homeland in person? Or since everything is readily available, they do not need to go back as often as before. On one hand, participating in transnational leisure activities may strengthen their attachment to the homeland and increase their longing to return. On the other hand, the accessibility of homeland goods, services, culture, and relationships through global networks may decrease the desire and frequency of traveling back to the homeland. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between transnational leisure activities and motivation to visit the homeland. Specifically, do migrants‘ transnational leisure participation and involvement influence their diaspora tourism motivation? Literature Review Transnationalism refers to the interconnected lifestyle and social experience of immigrants maintaining multiple ties with their home and host societies (Basch, Glick-Schiller, & Blanc, 1994). Transnationalism could be sustained through different types of activities, including economic, political, social, familial, religious, and cultural activities. Although leisure activities have not been a focus of transnationalism research, some cultural transnational practices overlap with leisure activities. The Immigration and Intergenerational Mobility in Metropolitan Los Angeles study (IIMMLA) found that 8.1% of second-generation immigrants participated in organizations associated with their parents‘ country of birth, and 48.7% watched TV or listened to the radio in their parents‘ language at least once a week or more (Rumbaut et al., 2008). The Immigrant Second Generation in New York study (ISGNY) revealed that ethnic music is very important to West Indian immigrants, and they listened to more ethnic music. Chinese-Americans, however, might listen to some Cantonese pop, but usually not traditional Chinese music (Kasinitz et al., 2008). Within leisure research, most studies on the leisure activities of immigrants employ the theory of acculturation. The focus was not on transnational leisure, but on immigrants‘ leisure participation within the mainstream culture of the host society. Many studies examined the effect of acculturation on immigrant leisure, be it participation, perceived benefits, motivations, or constraints. Floyd and Gramann (1993) compared Mexican- and Anglo-Americans to determine if the former‘s outdoor activity patterns and site visitation would be similar to the latter, based on different levels of structural assimilation. Shaull and Gramann (1998) also examined Hispanic- and Anglo-Americans to determine the impact of cultural assimilation on one‘s perceived benefits of outdoor recreation. They found a strong Anglo-conformity pattern in Hispanic-Americans‘ perception of nature-related benefits, while family-related benefits were less prone to the impact of cultural assimilation. Another study by Walker, Deng, and Dieser (2001) compared the motivations of Chinese-Canadians and Euro-North Americans for outdoor recreation. Their findings indicated that acculturation influenced the recreation motivation of Chinese-Canadians, both directly and indirectly through self-construal. The relationship between acculturation and leisure was also examined in Yu and Berryman‘s study (1996) on immigrant adolescents, which revealed a positive relationship between acculturation and recreational activities, and a negative relationship between acculturation and perceived barriers. A similar relationship was found in Scott, Lee, Lee and Kim‘s (2006) study of Korean migrants. They identified some constraints (i.e., lack of English proficiency and fear of discrimination) that varied by one‘s level of acculturation, while the biggest constraint, time, was not influenced by acculturation. Stodolska and Santos (2006) were the first to propose the concept of "transnational leisure," and they defined it as "leisure that is maintained by transnational migrants to foster their ties with their countries and communities of origin" (p. 162). Huang, Norman, Ramshaw, and Haller (2015) identified different types of transnational leisure activities by second-generation Chinese-Americans, and categorized them into four types: ethnic events and festivals, ethnic social clubs and organizations, ethnic media and pop culture, and Internet-based activities. As these previous studies were qualitative in nature, there is a need for more quantitative research so as to compare and identify different patterns of transnational leisure (e.g., level of involvement, frequency of participation) and examine how transnational leisure relate to other variables. Methods This study aims to examine the transnational leisure involvement and travel motivation of diaspora tourists. Specifically, overseas Chinese residing in North America (i.e., the USA and Canada) was selected as the target population. The service of a reputable and reliable international online survey company was obtained to reach out to this specific population of interest. Data collection took place from December 2016 to January 2017. A total of 808 responses were gathered. A questionnaire was developed based on previous literature. A list of transnational leisure activities with 19 items was developed based on the work of Huang et al. (2015). The transnational leisure involvement scale was adapted from the works of Kyle, Graefe, Manning, and Bacon (2003) and Kyle, Bricker, Graefe, and Wickham (2004). The scale consists of 14 items and three dimensions: Attraction, Centrality, and Self-expression. As there are many types of transnational leisure activities, respondents were first asked to go through the list and indicate their frequency of participation in each activity. Next, they were asked to think about "these activities" as they answered the leisure involvement scale. The measures for diaspora tourism motivation was developed based on Poria and colleagues‘ scale for heritage tourism motivation (2004; 2006a; 2006b), Kluin and Lehto‘s (2012) scale for family reunion travel motivations, and Li and McKercher‘s (2016) qualitative study on diaspora tourists. The last section of the questionnaire will be used to collect demographic information. Findings EFA was conducted to explore if transnational leisure activities can be categorized into different types. Three items were removed due to double loading (i.e., Sing Chinese songs in the karaoke, Online shopping for Chinese/Asian items, and Connect with friends and relatives in China through social media). Factor 1 consisted of 3 items that are basic common activities in migrant life, and was labeled "Basic" transnational leisure (i.e., Eat Chinese food, Shop for Chinese/Asian groceries, and Celebrate Chinese holidays). Factor 2 consisted of 7 items that are related to pop culture and internet-based leisure activities, and was labeled "Media-based" transnational leisure (e.g., Listen to Chinese songs and music, Watch Chinese drama, Visit websites related to Chinese or Chinese-American culture, and Read/watch the news related to China). Contrary to the individualistic nature of the activities in Factor 2, Factor 3 consisted of 6 items that are more likely to be group activities, and related to social clubs events and activities (e.g., Attend events hosted by Chinese ethnic organizations, Participate in Chinese cultural activities, Play Chinese board or card games, Attend Chinese concerts/performances, and Follow Chinese/Chinese-American sports players or teams). Thus, Factor 3 was labeled "Event-based" transnational leisure. Respondents‘ participation in these activities was measured on a 5-point scale of frequency, from 1=Never to 5=Always/Everyday. Overall, "Basic" transnational leisure received the highest mean score (M=3.82), while the means for "Media-based" (M=2.86) and "Event-based" activities (M=2.62) were lower. Although the mean scores in Factor 2 and 3 were not high, it should be noted that the nature of these activities are different. Chinese migrants can "Eat Chinese food" every day, but they cannot "Attending Chinese concerts" every day. Therefore, the mean scores for "Event-based" activities were the lowest. Moreover, ANOVA was conducted to compare five migrant generation groups (e.g., first-generation migrants who were born in the old country and relocated to a new country and second-generation migrants are native-born in the new country). The second generation had the lowest level of participation, while the first generation and 4+ generation had the highest level of participation in most types of transnational leisure activities. Correlation analyses further revealed that the frequency of "Media-based" activities and "Event-based" activities were positively correlated to the number of homeland trips, while the relationship between "Basic" transnational leisure and number of homeland trips was not statistically significant. Lastly, CFA was conducted to confirm the underlying dimensions of Transnational Leisure Involvement: Attraction (6 items), Centrality (4 items), and Self-expression (4 items). EFA was conducted to identify the dimensions of diaspora tourism motivation. The 11 items loaded on one of two factors: Chinese Culture (6 items) and Family Heritage (5 items). Multiple regression analyses were conducted, with the three dimensions of transnational leisure involvement as independent variables, and the two dimensions of diaspora tourism motivation as dependent variables. It was found that Attraction and Centrality would influence respondents‘ motivation for Chinese Culture, while Attraction, Centrality, and Self-expression would influence respondents‘ motivation for Personal Heritage. Discussion Results showed that transnational leisure involvement is useful in understanding the activity patterns of different migrant generations. Specifically, the relationships between transnational involvement and diaspora tourism motivation were consistently positive, which provides an effective means of segmenting diaspora tourists. Transnational leisure activities are good opportunities for homeland destinations to connect with diaspora tourists prior to their travel. Other than direct promotional activities, transnational leisure provides an alternative way to increase diaspora tourists‘ level of engagement and frequency of travel to the homeland.

In the last few years, the attention on false and misleading communications regarding company’s commitment towards the environment – a practice known as greenwashing – has drastically increased. Greenwashing has several consequences for companies: it deteriorates brand reputation and trust (Duan and Jie, 2013), increases consumer skepticism (Delmas and Burbano, 2011), reduces purchase intentions (Murray and Vogel 1997; Swaen and Vanhamme 2004, 2005), and erodes investor’s confidence in environmentally friendly firms (Delmas and Burbano, 2011). Indeed, private investors are interested in CSR and look for information about it (Cellier et al., 2016; Nath, et al., 2013) but little is known about the consequences of greenwashing on private investments. Moreover, greenwashing often happens because of the bad management of the supply chain and various company’s faults are related to the difficulty to manage it (Crane et al., 2014). The aim of this research is to investigate how greenwashing affects intention to invest depending on the involvement of the supply chain. In two experiments we compared three types of greenwashing, which vary according to the supply chain role in the misconduct and the declared CSR commitment of the company. We call indirect greenwashing when a company that declares to be CSR committed is accused of greenwashing because it purchases raw materials or services from a supplier that does not meet sustainability standards (e.g. child labor, environmental damages). Conversely, a company that does not follow its CSR talk because of its own production procedures is an example of direct greenwashing. We also propose a third category of greenwashing, which we called vicarious greenwashing: when the misconduct and the relative accusation regard a company’s supplier, but the company does not claim to be sustainable (so it’s vicariously affected). A scenario-based experimental design (n =107) asked participants to indicate the intention to invest on a company accused of direct greenwashing (vs. indirect vs. vicarious). Results showed that direct greenwashing is particularly detrimental on investment intentions, especially compared to vicarious greenwashing, but not compared to indirect greenwashing (even if the means were lower). This result suggests that greenwashing is detrimental for investments even when the company does not perform the misconduct. A second experiment (n = 202) investigated whether the declared control on the supply chain affects intention to invest when the company is involved in greenwashing. Direct greenwashing was the more detrimental for investments, but, when companies declared high control on the supply chain, greenwashing significantly decreased intention to invest, so that in high control condition direct greenwashing did not differ from vicarious and indirect greenwashing. These results show how the involvement in greenwashing affects investment intentions of private investors and expand our knowledge on the consequences of greenwashing, so far mostly investigated from the consumer side. We show that greenwashing has potential disruptive consequences from a broader perspective, because it reduces stakeholders’ willingness to invest, even when the misconduct is attributable to a supplier.

The hotel industry has been reaching their existing and prospecting customers via emails throughout a customer’s journey, from pre-arrival information/promotions to post-stay emails for the reviews (Huang, 2016). In different from other email marketing campaigns containing pure promotional materials for acquiring customers, post-stay e-mails can be used to send personalized messages and build an emotional connection with customers by thanking and rewarding their stays. As an increasing number of customers open and read emails via mobile devices on the move (Jordan, 2015), effectively designed post-stay emails with persuasive messages can be a powerful communicating method keeping customers in the lines of dialog with the brands. However, there is lack of studies on how the post-stay email marketing campaign works to retain customers. This study aimed to identify post-stay email features that affect customers’ intention to revisit the same hotel brand depending on their levels of involvement in choosing hotels for leisure purpose. Grounded on the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986), this study identified what causes “motivation” to process a post-stay email and which email features can be more effectively positioned to persuade consumers with different elaboration levels. This study developed hypotheses regarding the effects of email features on attitude and intention to revisit the hotel brands. A total of 189 responses was determined to be usable in this study. Using Path Analysis, this study tested multivariate regression model with direct effect of email features on attitude and indirect effects of email features on intention to revisit the hotel brand. In addition, this study tested a moderating effect of leisure involvement on the hypothesized paths. The results showed that consumers with a low level of leisure involvement tended to be influenced by financial and interactivity features on their attitude towards the hotel brand while personalization features yielded favorable attitude towards the hotel brand for consumers with a high level of leisure involvement. Attitude towards the hotel brand was a significant predictor of behavioral intention to revisit the hotel brand that sends post-stay emails in this study. Industry professionals and researchers can utilize this study to better design their e-mails as customer retention strategies. The email features analyzed in this study can be strategically included in the post-stay e-mail according to their target market. The initiative can assist in reinforcing or persuading their guests to revisit the hotel brand and build stronger customer relationships.

Introduction Customer co-creation – customers‘ active participation and interaction with the company during their consumption processes, has gained increasing attention in tourism industry (Bertella, 2014; Chathoth et al., 2016; Campos, 2015). For example, Finnair and Helsinki airport invited passengers to workshop for co-developing new service concepts to improve passenger experience (Loukas, 2013). Despite of the increasing enthusiasm at the firm‘s side, customers do not necessarily share the mindset and feel ready for cocreation. The success of value co-creation greatly depends on continuous collaboration between customers and companies (Chathoth et al., 2013), making knowledge regarding customers‘ engagement in value co-creation essential. However, insufficient research attention has been devoted to theorize and empirically investigate the drivers of cocreation behavior in tourism (Grissemann & Stokburger-Sauer, 2012). To address this research gap, we draw on the organizational socialization theory (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979) to propose and empirically test customer education as driving factor for tourists‘ co-creation behavior during their tours. Additionally, we propose customer readiness as a mechanism mediating the effect of customer education on value co-creation behavior, while such effect should depend on tourists‘ involvement with tourism. Background and hypotheses development Organizational socialization refers to the process by which a newcomer gradually absorbs values, abilities, expected behaviors, and necessary social knowledge for assuming an organizational role and for participating as an organizational member (Louis, 1980, p. 229–230). Similar to the organizational socialization perspective, customer socialization characterizes how customers develop skills, knowledge, and attitude relevant to the marketplace (Ward, 1975), which offers a lens to explain how service providers can assist customers and behave as effective co-creators in the service system (Claycomb, Lengnick-Hall, and Inks, 2001). Büttgen et al (2012) demonstrated that customer socialization by training tactic has more important influence on consistent beliefs of service quality than prior reinforcement experiences, which engenders co-production motivation, in turn, leading to coproduction behavior as distal outcome of the socialization tactic. Previous studies suggest favorable customer outcomes to derive from the provision of customer education (Damali et al., 2016). Thus, this study proposed customer education as a socializing tactic, which is mediated by customer readiness for co-creation, to determine tourists co-creation behavior. The concept of co-creation has gained increasing attention in tourism literature, which is often described as the tourist‘s active participation, engagement and interaction during the consumption experience (e.g., Bertella, 2014; So et al., 2014). As Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004, p. 8) stated, cocreation is ―the joint creation of value by the company and the customer, allowing the customer to co-construct the service experience to suit her context‖. Indeed, creating a favorable, memorable experience involves not only the service providers but also the tourism customers because customers are always the value co-creator (Vargo and Lusch, 2004). Challagalla and colleagues (2009) posit that firms can reach out to contact the customers to provide service after a sale is complete, rather than respond upon the customer‘s requests. In specific, Challagalla and et al. (2009) suggest the proactive service initiatives to consist of three dimensions, namely proactive prevention, proactive education, and proactive feedback seeking. In this study, the three key forms of proactive post-sales services proposed by Challagalla et al. (2009) provides a foundation that helps us to conceive customer co-creation behavior and define the dimensions underlying customer co-creation behavior of tourism services. Customer education, according to Meer (1984), involves learning activities that are organized and sustained by a firm to impart attitudes, knowledge or skills to customers or potential customers. Meanwhile, customer co-creation readiness (CCR) as a customer‘s condition or state in which he/she feels prepared to collaborate with service provider in value co-creation behavior, indicated by role clarity, ability and motivation to co-create (Meuter et al., 2005). Proper socialization process helps customers understand the product or service process as well as their role in performing service tasks, which not only could prevent customer‘s disruptive behaviors during the service process but also facilitate service flow and productivity (Rollag, 2012). Taken together, we propose the following hypotheses: H1: customer education will have a positive effect on customer co-creation behavior H2: Customer co-creation readiness will mediate the positive effect of customer education on customer co-creation behavior. Further, we postulate that tourist‘s product involvement is a boundary condition that constrains the positive effect of customer socialization. Socialization process does not always have much weight on tourists because the influence of socialization on each individual depends on tourists‘ individual characteristics (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). Some tourists are highly interested in traveling whereas some consider traveling as a dessert in their meal. In line of this sense, we suggest the following hypothesis: H3: Product involvement will negatively moderate the mediation effect of customer co-creation readiness on co-creation behavior. Methodology The survey was posted on several well-known travel forums and referral networks. After eliminating invalid surveys, the authors obtain 300 valid questionnaires. Table 1 presents the sample characteristics. Customer education are measured by four items adapted from Bell and Eisingerich (2007). Product involvement depicts a customer‘s inherent needs, values, and interest towards tourism and is measured by ten items from Zaichkowsky (1985, 1994). Customer co-creation readiness is measured as a reflective first-order and reflective second-order construct by three dimensions: role clarity, ability, and motivation with 12 items adapted by Dellande et al. (2004) and Meuter et al. (2005). Customer co-creation behavior is measured as a reflective second order and reflective first order construct constituted by three dimensions of co-creation behavior with 12 items developed based on the review of concerns in the pre-site, on-site and post-site from several famous travel agencies. Results Measurement validation of constructs from construct reliability, convergent validity to discriminant validity were examined; and the results are provided in the table 2, indicating measurement validation requirements are satisfactory. Then, hypotheses testing was performed. In each analysis, we control variables, including customer gender, previous transaction experience with the travel agency (EP), and social desirability (SD), which are expected to have potential influence on co-creation behavior. H1 predicts a positive relationship between customer education and value co-creation. In support of H1, the analysis shows that customer education positively relates to co-creation of customers (β = 0.272, p = 0.043, R2adjusted= 0.292). Gender (β =-0.170, p<0.001) and SD (β =0.141, p=0.011) are negatively and positively related to customer co-creation behavior respectively. To test the mediating effect of customer readiness on the relationship between customer education and customer co-creation behavior, we used the PROCESS Macro (model 4) developed by Hayes‘s (2013) and estimated the effects with a bootstrap sample of 5000 cases. The indirect effect test indicates that customer education had a significantly positive effect on customer co-creation via the mediation of customer readiness for co-creation (0.312; 95% bootstrap CI [0.157, 0.517]) because the confidence interval did not include zero. The results support H2. Gender also has a significant effect on customer co-creation (β =-0.189, p <0.05). H3 postulated that product involvement will moderate the mediation effect of customer readiness. We used the PROCESS macro model 8 established by Hayes (2013) to test the moderated mediation. The conditional indirect effect test shows that customer readiness significantly mediates the influence of customer education on customer co-creation behavior, regardless of the level of product involvement (zero was not included in the confidence intervals). Nonetheless, customer education on customer co-creation behavior via customer readiness is significant and stronger in low level of product involvement (0.281; 95% bootstrap CI [0.186, 0.398]) but weaker in high level of product involvement (0.128; 95% bootstrap CI [0.029, 0.256]). Therefore, H3 is supported. Among the controlled variables, gender is the only significant predictor of customer co-creation behavior (β =-0.158, p<0.05). In a summary of dominant results of control variables, gender is significant in all three of the tested hypotheses; particularly, female shows a higher level of co-creation behavior than male. Conclusion we introduced organizational socialization theory to the literature on co-creation of tourism context and explored the effect of firms‘ education effort to socialize customers in co-creation activities. We found customer education as a socialization tactic and then conducting an empirical study by collecting data from several travel agencies to investigate the effect of firms‘ socialization tactic on customer co-creation. The results suggest that customer education could promote customer co-creation through customer readiness as a mediator. We also investigated whether the effect of socialization tactic differs on the different levels of product involvement. The results show that customers with high involvement were less influenced by customer education than those with low involvement.

Research on service innovation suggests that involving customers in the development of new services is a major contributing factor to the success of new services (e.g. Carbonell et al., 2009; 2012; Melton & Hartline, 2010; 2015; Zhihong et al., 2015). The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the literature on customer involvement (CI) in new service development (NSD) both offline and online and to identify the major current issues faced by researchers and future research challenges. This paper approaches CI from the perspective of “co-creation for others” (Witell et al., 2011), that is participating in developing services that can benefit other customers. A search was done on three major databases, EBSCO; Emerald, and ScienceDirect, using various keywords (CI; NSD; service innovation; user involvement; co-creation, and customer participation) from 2002 (first CI paper published (Carlborg et al., 2014) to 2016. Relevant studies start with mainly qualitative inquiries whereas in the last 5 years there are more surveys and new types of qualitative research such as netnography and action research. The most important questions addressed are who is involved and how. Various studies investigate the role of different types of customers such as close; lead; ordinary or guided; their characteristics such as proactiveness; knowledge or experience; motives; emotions, or dissatisfaction, and their capabilities such as knowledge absorptive capability or relational capability. Furthermore, the way customers may be involved is analysed from many perspectives including the stages of involvement; the modes and intensity of involvement in each NSD stage (e.g. Melton and Hartline, 2010; Paasi, 2014) as well as the characteristics of effective CI. Moreover, studies in the online environment look at the web based tools for CI such as social media or virtual communities (Ryzhkova, 2012); the nature of customer contributions on social networks (Sigala, 2012); the role of lead users in developing online services (Schuhmacher & Kuester, 2012; Mahr & Lievens, 2012) and the drivers of customer participation in virtual brand communities (Zhilong et al., 2015). Major current issues include which customer or firm actions should be included in each stage and why; what is the role of relationships in effective CI; how we can select customers for NSD and what is the role of virtual environments in CI. Future research challenges include developing guides for customer selection for NSD; analyzing the nature of CI (modes; intensity; types of contributions; customer roles and actions in each stage; communication types and skills); using virtual environments for CI and determining the link of various relationship concepts with CI.

The impact of customer involvement in NSD on customer loyalty is still unknown, because most studies examine loyalty perceptions of only active participants in co-creation, while the few studies involving co-creation observers provide conflicting results. Research is also limited, as it measures user participation only at the design level, while customers are empowered to participate at all NSD stages. This study contributes to the literature by developing a model capturing the various levels of customer involvement in NSD co-creation and then, measuring its impacts on two type of user loyalty: brand loyalty and loyalty on innovation community. Data were collected from users of the Domino’s Mogul pizza toolkit empowering them to participate in all NSD stages and also to become pizza entrepreneurs by designing and selling their pizzas. Findings comparing the brand loyalty and the innovation community loyalty perceptions of users with various levels of co-creation involvement provide useful insights.

For the past decade, the convenience of sharing information online has improved drastically with the development of smart devices and social media. Such changes have contributed to regarding online word-of-mouth (WOM) as one of the most important consumer information sources. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine online WOM effects (acceptance/redelivery intention) with the two-way interaction effects of fashion involvement and the market maven. The empirical study consisted of an offline survey that collected data from 341 respondents and analyzed the data by factor analysis, independent t-test, and two-way ANOVA with SPSS 20.0, producing the following results. First, the market maven effect was found to differ significantly based on the level of fashion involvement, and is also higher when fashion involvement is high. Second, fashion involvement primarily affected online WOM acceptance, while the market maven significantly affected redelivery intention. Moreover, fashion involvement and market maven had relevant two-way interaction with both of the online WOM effects. Third, market maven had measurable effects on WOM redelivery types (objective/subjective) and directions (positive/negative/ neutral), whereas fashion involvement did not have any primary effects on them. However, fashion involvement and market maven had two-way interaction effects on the positive and negative direction of WOM redelivery. Based on these findings, the study suggests the importance of investigating and understanding the complicated online WOM behaviors of consumers, specifically from both managerial and theoretical perspectives.

The purpose of this study was to examine the differences of the information searches and purchasing behavior Korean men in their 20s and 30s, focusing on cosmetic involvement. Research methods consisted of qualitative and quantitative approaches. For the qualitative approach, in-depth interviews and participant observations were conducted to investigate male customers' cosmetic characteristics in information searches and purchasing behavior. Then, the study conducted a quantitative study methodology based on the questionnaires from the in-depth interviews, participant observations, and literature review. The study surveyed 340 Korean men in their 20s and 30s. The cosmetic involvement of the target group was classified into the amusing high-involvement group, the rational low-involvement group, and the obligatory high-involvement group. The results from this study indicated that the groups of male customers classified by cosmetic involvement showed statistically significant differences in terms of information searches and purchasing behaviors. Especially, the obligatory high-involvement group generally displayed high-involvement traits likewise the amusing highinvolvement, was more similar to the rational low-involvement group regarding cost effectiveness than the obligatory high-involvement group. Moreover, the classifications of men generally had different characteristics of cosmetic purchasing behavior and information searches than women. This study has a distinctive significance compared with other studies in discovering differences of cosmetic purchasing behaviors of Korean men in their 20s and 30s’ cosmetic involvement groups classified using qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Introduction Consumers can easily combine the online and physical channels in their shopping process. This new reality is changing the nature of the customer-firm interactions and is challenging retailers to effectively manage their customers. In this line, two antagonistic shopping patterns can be identified: showrooming (visiting physical retailers to check out products and then buy online) and webrooming (research products online before making the purchase offline). In this way, the fashion industry has been deeply affected by these cross-channel shopping behaviour (Lee and Kim, 2008; Cho and Workman, 2010). In this way, according to the Google Consumer Barometer 2015 (www.consumerbarometer.com), webrooming represents the dominant channel combination in fashion shopping around the globe. Cross-channel shopping patterns can threaten traditional retailers though, in the form of free-riding behaviors, such that consumers use one retailer’s channel to prepare, and then switch to another retailer’s channel to purchase (Chiou et al., 2012). Both showroomers and webroomers can free ride, yet the latter is less problematic, because online retailers’ costs are largely fixed (Van Baal and Dach 2005), and consumers often use multiple online sources to search for product information. In an omnichannel era, retailers must learn to integrate channels to offer seamless and unique experiences that retain consumers throughout their entire purchase experience (Verhoef et al, 2015). However, there is a lack of studies analysing the situational characteristics that lead consumers to adopt a specific combination of channels. Specialised literature has emphasised the role convenience (e.g. Verhoef et al., 2007), overlooking the impact of other relevant factors. This research examines the differences between webrooming and showrooming in terms of the degree of the consumer’s involvement with the purchase. Specifically, we examine the differences between webrooming and showrooming in terms of involvement, and how these differences translate into different preferences for the virtual and physical channels to search for information and carry out the purchase. Hypotheses Formulation The consumer’s cross-channel behavior is defined as the use of a combination of channels at different stages of the same shopping process (Dholakia et al., 2005). As previously stated, showrooming and webrooming are two antagonistic forms of cross-channel behavior. We propose that the degree of involvement will shape the consumer’s tendency to carry out one of the two cross-channel sequences. Involvement is defined as the individual’s degree of interest or relevance with a product or purchase situation (Zaichkowsky, 1985; Mittal, 1989). The fashion industry encompasses products whose characteristics prevent consumers from evaluating their quality without physical interaction (Weathers et al., 2007). Thus, they are sensitive to be acquired by means of a cross-channel process. However, when consumers are involved with the purchase of the product, their informational needs are increased (Brunelle, 2009), which lead them to carry out an exhaustive information search. Purchase involvement entails that the consumer is motivated to choose the best option. In this way, the Internet is widely acknowledged as the best channel to satisfy consumers’ need for an extensive information search (e.g. Ratchford et al. 2003), except for the physical inspection of the product (Citrin et al., 2003). This lack of complete knowledge leads them to carry out a webrooming purchase process. On the other hand, when consumers are not involved with the purchase of the product, they seek for convenience in their experiences and paying a low price (McGoldrick and Collins, 2007), which are the main defining factors of showrooming. Showroomers go the physical store to find the product they want to acquire and then take the advantage of the convenience and low prices of the Internet to buy the product. Therefore: H1: Purchase involvement is higher in webrooming than in showrooming. For showroomers, the use of the Internet is more limited to the search for lower prices and to carry out the purchase. In webrooming, consumers use the Internet to research about products and then go to the store with a higher knowledge of the product they want, to corroborate the information they have seen online, and to gain power in the interaction with the salesman (Orús, 2015). Webroomers value the information richness that the Internet offers. Therefore, the relevance of the Internet as channel to search for product information should be higher in webrooming experiences than in showrooming experiences H2: The preference for the Internet to search for information about the product is higher in Webrooming than in Showrooming. Finally, if involvement determines the differences between webrooming and showrooming, it should also explain the preferences for the purchase channel. Specifically, highly involved consumers will be more likely to use the physical store because they can have a physical interaction with the product and the sales personal, which helps them to take the shopping decision with a high degree of confidence (Flavián et al., 2016). Low involved consumers will purchase from the channel which allows them to pay a low price and to make the purchase in a convenient way (i.e. the Internet). Thus: H3: The degree of consumer’s involvement with the purchase mediates the effects of webrooming versus showrooming experiences on the preference for the purchase channel. Methodology Three studies were developed to test the hypotheses. The Study 1 consisted of an exploratory survey to identify and characterise different cross-channel shopping behaviours. In Study 2 we directly manipulate the degree of the participants’ involvement in order to examine their preference for the Internet as a channel for searching for information and their preference of the channel to carry out the purchase. Finally, Study 3 put participants into a webrooming or a showrooming shopping scenario and examines differences in the degree of involvement and purchase intentions. All the studies are carried out with samples of millennials or Generation Y (Parment, 2013) and focus on the purchase of clothing and accessories. Study 1 Participants were 192 millennials (60.9% female; between 18 and 35 years old). They were asked to think about a recent purchase experience of clothing or accessories in which they combined different channels during the purchase process. The participants reported the product purchased and the channels employed to search for information and buy the product. Finally, they indicated, on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all, 7 = extremely), to what extent the purchase of the product was (1) important, (2) interesting, (3) relevant, (4) meant a lot, (5) significant, to measure their degree of involvement (Zaichkowsky, 1985; Mittal, 1989; α = 0.89, 70.51% of variance explained). Due to space constraints, only a summary of results is presented. Out of the 192 participants, 109 (57%) reported a webrooming experience, whereas 28 (15%) recalled a showrooming experience. This result confirms that webrooming is a more extended behavior than showrooming. Moreover, purchase involvement for participants who recalled a webrooming experience (M = 5.56, SD = 0.86) was significantly higher than for those who recalled a showrooming experience (M = 4.33, SD = 1.46; U Mann-Whitney non-parametric test: p < 0.001). Evidence in favor of H1 was found. Study 2 This study consisted of an experimental design with one between-subjects factor with two levels. Specifically, participants (n = 68; 58% female; between 18 and 35 years old) were asked to think about the purchase of a clothing and fashion product with a cost of either €20 or less (low involvement condition) or €100 or more (high involvement condition). Among other measures, participants reported the probability of using the Internet to search for product information before purchase (from 1 = very unlikely, to 7 = very likely), and the preference for the channel to carry out the purchase (from 1 = definitely the Internet, to 7 = definitely the physical store). The participants also indicated their degree of involvement in the same way as in the previous study (α = 0.91, 75.41% of variance explained). In this way, the manipulation was successful since participants’ involvement with the purchase of the expensive product (M = 5.14, SD = 1.32) was significantly higher than with the purchase of the cheap product (M = 4.31, SD = 1.19; t(66) = 2.688, p < 0.01). The results of the analyses were consistent with our expectations. The probability of using the Internet for searching for product information was significantly higher for participants in the highly-involving purchase (M = 5.55, SD = 1.92) than for those in the low-involving purchase (M = 3.07, SD = 1.84; t(66) = 5.391, p < 0.001). In addition, participants’ preference for the purchase channel was also affected by the experimental treatment. In the purchase of the expensive product, participants indicated a higher preference for the physical store (M = 5.95, SD = 1.33), whereas for the cheap garment, participants were more indifferent, slightly leaned toward the Internet though (M = 3.87, SD = 1.68; t(66) = 5.701, p < 0.001). H2 is supported. In addition, two ANCOVAs were carried out to test the mediator effect of involvement. Involvement significantly influenced the preference for the Internet to search for information (F(1, 67) = 13.589, p < 0.001) and the purchase preference (F(1, 67) = 11.364, p < 0.001). The effect of the treatment was reduced in both cases, supporting partial mediation (H3). Study 3 The last study manipulated the type of information search sequence. Participants (n = 54; 53.7% female; between 17 and 24 years old) had an initial interaction with the product (a strap bag) and then changed the channel to have a cross-channel search experience with the same product. In this way, participants in the webrooming condition first had an online experience with the product and then had the opportunity to physically interact with it. Participants in the showrooming condition had the reverse sequence. After having both experiences with the product, the participants indicated the likelihood of purchasing the product in the channel where they had had the last experience (from 1 = very unlikely, to 7 = very likely). A set of additional measures were gathered. At the end of the questionnaire, participants indicated the degree of involvement with the experience (α = 0.86, 63.70 % of variance explained). The results of the analyses further confirmed H1. Participants in the webrooming scenario indicated a higher degree of involvement (M = 5.22, SD = 0.67) than participants in the showrooming scenario (M = 4.67, SD = 0.95; t(52) = 2.505, p < 0.05). Moreover, purchase intention at the physical store was higher for webroomers (M = 5.87, SD = 1.92) than purchase intentions in the online store for showroomers (M = 4.83, SD = 1.24; F(1, 53) = 11.789, p < 0.01). When involvement was included as a covariate in the analysis, it had a positive effect on purchase intentions (F(1, 53) = 13.591, p < 0.01), whereas the effect of the type of search sequence decreased (F(1, 53) = 5.785, p < 0.05). Again, we find support for H3, given that involvement partially explained the effect of webrooming on the preference for the physical store to purchase the product. Discussion and Conclusions Consistent with previous reports (Sevitt and Samuel, 2013; Google Consumer Barometer, 2015), the results of the first study confirmed that webrooming is a more frequent cross-channel shopping than showrooming. Thus, traditional retailers may take the advantages of the Internet to offer enhanced shopping experiences to customers, instead of fearing of a possible cannibalization of the online channel. Importantly, the results of the three studies show differences between webrooming and showrooming in terms of the involvement with the purchase situation. The first study measured the degree of consumers’ involvement depending on the type of cross-channel behavior, revealing that involvement was higher for webroomers than for showroomers. The second study directly manipulated the degree of involvement and demonstrated a clear preference for a webrooming experience when the purchase of the product entailed a higher degree of involvement. The third study showed that, depending on the type of search sequence (webrooming or showrooming) the involvement with the purchase experience was different. Furthermore, the level of purchase involvement determined the preference for the online and physical channels to search for information and purchasing the product. This finding entails important implications for both theory and practice. Nevertheless, this research has several limitations which open avenues for further research. Specifically, we only focused on a specific segment of the market and on a specific product category. Future studies should replicate these findings with more representative samples and a wider set of product categories, which have been found to determine multichannel behaviour to a great extent (Kushwaha and Shankar, 2013). Further research should also include convenience- and price-related variables which can explain the differences between webrooming and showrooming.

The study investigated the relationship between body satisfaction and attitudes toward trendy clothing among men in Generation Y with fashion involvement being a mediator in that relationship. Findings suggested a negative relationship between body satisfaction and attitudes toward trendy clothing and a mediator role of fashion involvement.

본 연구는 사전지식 수준이 어떠한 조절요인을 통해서 소셜커뮤니케이션 행동을 하는지를 검 토하였다. 정치쟁점 ‘사드’에 대한 사전지식 수준이 관여도와 뉴스신뢰도에 미치는 영향을 검증 한 결과, 관여도 구성 요소중 이슈관여, 가치관여 측면에서 차이를 보였고, 뉴스신뢰도에는 영향 을 미치지 않았다. 정치쟁점 ‘사드’에 대한 사전지식 수준이 소셜커뮤니케이션 행동에 미치는 영 향을 검토한 결과, 정보전달과 정보공유행동에 유의미한 차이를 보이지 않았다. 그러나 정치쟁점 ‘사드’에 대한 사전지식 수준과 소셜커뮤니케이션 행동의 관계에서 관여도와 뉴스신뢰도가 조절 요인으로 효과가 있는지 살펴보았다. 그 결과 모두 조절요인으로서 효과가 있는 것으로 나타났 다. ‘좋아요’에는 뉴스신뢰도와 가치관여가 조절변인으로서 통계적으로 유의한 것으로 나타났다. ‘댓글달기’는 가치관여가 가장 높게, 정치관여가 조절효과를 보였다. ‘공유하기’의 경우엔 뉴스신 뢰도, 이슈관여, 정치관여, 가치관여등 모든 요인이 유의미한 영향을 주는 것으로 나타났다.

Pay-What-You-Want (PWYW) is an innovative participative pricing strategy in which consumers determine the price they want to pay for a product or service. Past research mainly focuses on individual variables as antecedents of consumers’ willingness to pay under PWYW pricing and ignores the role of situational factors. We address this gap by investigating the effects of three situational factors, perceived crowding, involvement level and time pressure, on consumers’ PWYW pricing decisions. Pay-what-you-want (PWYW) is an innovative pricing mechanism that gives consumers maximum control over the price setting process, and thus allows buyers to entirely determine the price for their desired product or service (Schmidt, Spann & Zeithammer, 2014). The buyer has the authority to choose any price to pay for the offered product or service and there is no minimum price to protect the seller (Kahsay & Samahita, 2015). Such increased perceived control on the final price induces consumers to greater purchase intentions (Chandran & Morwitz, 2005). Hence, a growing number of firms in different industries such as music, museums, software, and charity sales are using PWYW pricing (Schmidt, Spann & Zeithammer, 2014). Internal reference price (IRP) is defined as a price in the buyers' memories that serves as a basis for judging or comparing actual prices (Monroe, 1973; Monroe, Grewal, & Compeau, 1991). In the context of PWYW involvement has a negative effect on prices paid. Involvement is the level of personal relevance consumers possess regarding a product or a purchase decision (Zaichkowsky, 1985). Involvement is conceptualized as both, an individual difference variable representing an “enduring interest” in a given product (Roy, 2015; Bloch & Richins, 1983). It is also posited that the negative effect of involvement on IRP will be further moderated by perceived crowding. Perceived crowding is often described in negative terms as a confined, constrained, and restricted physical setting; and it has two distinct dimensions, spatial crowding and human crowding (Machleit et al., 2000; Byunn & Mann, 2011). A crowded shopping environment is also incompatible with the consumers’ shopping desires and goals; hence consumers exhibit unfavorable shopping behavior such as spend less time in the store (Machleit et al., 2000; Li, Kim & Lee, 2009). Perceived crowding should therefore negatively influence consumers’ involvement and IRP, thereby affecting the money they are willing to pay in PWYW situation.

In service experiences, customers often look to create their own magic in the service environment, through interaction with other customers, not the producer of the experience (the provider) at all. The current study examines the bar environment, where hedonically-driven service encounter experiences are constructed, not by the provider, but by the social interactions of the consumers of the environment. The study surveys 130 consumers, measuring experiential, situational and social involvement levels in relation to consumption motivation and overall experience evaluation. The research finds that, while bar consumers are likely to be highly socially involved, they still need the company of close friends to become fully involved in the bar service experience. In addition, where atmospheric theory discusses the value of extraordinary or surprising service environments, consumers in the already hedonic bar environment may indeed prefer environments which are simply comfortable and consistent with their expectations (in regard to motivations to consume and overall positive evaluations).

Introduction Consumers throughout the world, including Asia, are showing increased concerns about food safety. Public policy, industry, and academic researchers are turning increased attention to the effects of food labeling requirements. General food labels provide information about serving size, servings per container, total calories per serving, calories from fat, and minimum daily nutritional value. Consumers must then use the food labeling information to make individual dietary choices. Thus it is appropriate for researchers to ask how consumers formulate product choices and evaluations according to food labeling information including calorie counts and standardized nutritional information (Ford et al. 1996; Keller et al. 1997; Roe, Levy, & Derby 1999). Long-term strategies are critically needed to find ways to protect public health and to assure food safety. Health practitioners and governmental regulators have increased their efforts to address the growing problem by sponsoring programs for food safety and by requiring nutritional labeling. In answer to the need for further research in food consumption behavior (RFC), this study was conducted to investigate how manufacturers might use consumers’ perceptions of risks and involvement for planning the most effective food labeling. Theoretical Framework To find ways to promote general and social marketing healthful consumer use of food labels (Lefebvre, 1988; McDermott, 2000), this study utilizes consumer segmentation techniques in which consumers are categorized according to psychological and demographic profiles (Slater, Kelly, & Thackeray, 2006). That is, they are segmented based on essential homogeneous responses (Forthofer, 2000; Kotler, 1971) and demographic characteristics, including age, gender, income and social class, although demographics may be less effective than psychological differences for predicting responses to health promotions (Lefebvre, 1988; Slater, 1991). The psychographics approach to consumer segmentation, derived from marketing techniques, selects variables that predict health behaviors; that is, consumers are segmented according to how they process communication channel properties and message features (Rimal & Adkins, 2003). By focusing on consumer segmentation we elucidate how consumers react to food labeling designed to promote health and food safety. Consumer segmentation should help us understand why consumers might reject risky unhealthful behaviors and adopt protective healthful behaviors (Slater, 2006). The risk perception attitude framework (Garretson & Burton, 2000; Rimal & Real 2003; Turner, Rimal, Morrison &, Kim, 2006) is a theoretical perspective for segmenting consumers based on their perceptions of risk and their beliefs about personal efficacy. According to the risk perception attitude framework, risk perceptions are usually insufficient to motivate behavior, but when high risk perceptions are coupled with strong efficacy beliefs, people are more motivated to engage in self-protective behaviors. Social cognitive theory and the extended parallel process model also support the importance of efficacy beliefs as moderating risk perception effects on self-protective behavior (Bandura 1986; Witte 1994). Using the risk perception attitude framework for purposes of this study, consumers are classified into four groups according to their risk perception and self-efficacy as indicated by their involvement in health concerns. 1) The "indifference" group comprises study participants who have low risk perceptions and low involvement; they believe they face few risks, lack control of their actions, and are thus not motivated to undertake protective behaviors. 2) The "responsive" group comprises study participants who have high risk perceptions and high involvement and thus are motivated to undertake extensive self-protective behaviors. 3) The "proactive" group comprises participants who have low risk perception but high involvement; they believe strongly in their personal abilities to take control, but perceive low risk and are thus not motivated to engage in self-protective behaviors. 4) The "avoidance" group comprises study participants who have high risk perceptions and low involvement; they are concerned about the need to counter risks but lack the self-efficacy and involvement to follow recommendations. Research Questions To examine the risk perception attitude framework in the context of research on food consumption behavior (RFC), three central research questions are posed: RQ1: How are consumers classified according to their level of perceived risk and involvement? RQ2: Do different consumer types show different attitudes toward paying higher prices for safer food and toward paying attention to food labels? RQ3: What factors influence consumer classifications? Methods Data for this study came from research on food consumption behavior (RFC) conducted by Korea Rural Economic Institute (KREI) in 2014. In 2013, the KREI began gathering data regarding food consumption behavior to help the food industry develop more efficient use of food resources. RFC data are appropriate because they include data about various consumption patterns regarding food lifestyles, purchases, and food safety. Specifically, RFC for this study, we gathered data for a stratified sampling of 6,311 consumers, 19 to 75-years-old, living in 16 metropolitan city-regions in South Korea. Table 1 shows general features of the research participants. Among the respondents, 44.2% were men; 55.8% were women; 10.7% were 19 to 25-years-old; 37.6% were high school graduates; 46.9% had lower than middle school graduation levels, 21.9% were college graduates, 2.3% had post-graduate levels, 1.1% were uneducated; 36.5% had average monthly family incomes of 200~399; 1.3% had the highest rate of 1000 and more; 1.0% had low to moderate interest in health; 42.8% reported that they bought food two or three times weekly; 0.7% reported buying food once a month. Respondents reported an average 3.93 regarding risk perceptions for food safety. Their reported average level of involvement was 3.32; average of intention to pay higher prices for safe food was 3.37, and their average likelihood of checking food labels was 3.15. Measurement To score education levels, the uneducated group = 1, less than middle school = 2, high school graduates = 3, college graduates = 4, and postgraduates = 5. A five-point Likert-type scale was used to measure participants’ interest in their health (1 = complete indifference to 5 = very much interested). Also a five-point Likert scale was used to measure perceived risk for twelve items related to food safety: foreign substances, pesticide residue, use of antibiotics in livestock and fish, natural toxicity, food additives, heavy metals, endocrine disruptors, bacterial contamination, livestock disease, GMO, irradiation, packing hazards, and allergens (1 = not concerned at all to 5 = very concerned). Involvement was measured for three questions regarding food origin, food materials, and eco-friendly products (1 = not concerned at all to 5 = very concerned). Intentions to pay higher prices for safe food and to check food labels were measured from 1 = not at all to 5 = very positive. Results Four consumer groups were classified according to their level of perceived risk and involvement. We followed previous RPA model studies (e.g., Sullivan et al., 2008; Jo & Yoo, 2011) and classified groups based on median perceived risk and involvement: (≥4.00) for high perceived risk, (<4.00) for low perceived risk, (≥3.333) for high involvement, and (< 3.33) for low involvement. The responsive group had high perceived risk and high involvement; the proactive group had low perceived risk and high involvement; the avoidance group had high perceived risk and low involvement; and the indifference group had low perceived risk and low involvement. Additionally, ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey test was conducted to examine the average difference among the four groups regarding their intentions to pay higher prices for safe food and to check food labels. Multinomial logit regression was performed to discover the factors that influence classification of consumer types. Classification of consumer types according to perceived risk and involvement Table 1 shows the consumer classifications according to the level of perceived risk and involvement: 1,198 participants, 21.8%, were in the indifference group with low perceived risk and low involvement; 1,254 participants, 22.8%, were in the proactive group with low perceived risk and high involvement; 1,125 participants, 20.5%, were in the avoidance group with high perceived risk and low involvement; 1,924 participants, 35.5%, were in the responsive group with high perceived risk and high involvement. Among the four groups, the responsive group had a statistically significant relatively high ratio: χ2 value for group classification was 79.695 (p <.001). Consumer classification differences in purchase intentions to pay higher prices for safe food and to check food labels Table 2 shows differences in intentions to pay higher prices for safe food and to check food labels. The proactive group showed the highest average intentions to pay higher prices for safe food at 3.52, followed by the responsive group at 3.51, the avoidance group at 3.25, and the indifference group at 3.16. The differences among the groups were statistically significant. A Tukey post-analysis showed that the high involvement group, in contrast with the low involvement group, showed higher average intentions to pay higher prices for safe food. Among the low involvement groups, those with high perceived risk had higher average intentions than those with low perceived risk. The responsive group showed the highest average intentions to check food labels at 3.44, followed by the proactive group at 3.43, the avoidance group at 2.74, and the indifference group at 2.27. The differences among the groups were statistically significant. A Tukey post-analysis showed that high involvement groups, in contrast with low involvement groups, showed higher average intentions to check food labels, but no difference was found according to the level of perceived risk. Influential factors of consumer segmentations Table 3 shows the results of examining the factors of gender, age, education, monthly average family income, and interest in health that are typical in consumer segments. Comparing all groups with the responsive group, the indifference group was most likely to comprise young women who had lower educational levels, lower monthly income, and less interest in health. The proactive group was most likely to be made up of men. The avoidance group was most likely to be made of young men who had lower educational levels, lower monthly incomes, and less interest in health. Discussion This study is an investigation of the theoretical framework of risk perception and involvement according to indifference, proactivity, responsiveness, or avoidance consumer segments. The study centrally indicates that the four risk perception–involvement framework groups differ in their perceptions of risk and the extent of their involvement. By revealing the importance of high involvement as a fruitful intervention strategy, the results suggest practical implications for public policymakers and marketers who strive to devise appropriate food labeling. Social cognitive theory has long stressed the importance of enhancing personal involvement (Bandura 1986). That insight can be applied to the risk perception attitude framework for identifying particular audiences who will respond to involvement-enhancing messages. Our findings suggest that a useful strategy in promoting change is to recognize that consumers will react differently according to their tendencies toward indifference, proactivity, responsiveness, or avoidance.

Support from the private sector, for example by firms, has been solicited to ease tourist attraction financial constraints and to help their restoration and maintenance out of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities (United Nations, 2010; Europanostra, 2013). When engaging in these partnerships, firms may display different level of altruistic motivation. For example, the Italian fashion company Tod’s demonstrated high altruism by agreeing to restore the Colosseum without any economic or financial return. American Express, however, sought promotional rights when the firm agreed to contribute to the restoration of the Statue of Liberty. Finally, the ticketing agency Eventim renamed the Hammersmith Apollo (now Eventim Apollo) in London following their involvement in the restoration, thus pursuing more strategic, rather than altruistic goals. Non-altruistic goals and the fear that the involvement of a company may generate scepticism in visitors, as they could perceive the authentic image of a tourist attraction to be jeopardized. Managers of tourist attractions are faced with a dilemma: should they seek financial support from third parties (e.g. firms), or would this compromise the appeal of the site, leading to a drop in the number of visitors? In order to address this problem, we conducted two experiments to examine how firms' involvement in restorations affects tourist attractions. We found that firms' altruistic motivations (that denotes the support of a cause without demanding anything in return) are positively associated with tourists' intentions to visit the attraction (Study 1). Moreover, we found that this relationship is mediated by visitors’ perceived authenticity, in other words the belief that the real aspect of the site has not been irreversibly altered. We confirm the robustness of our findings in Study 2, additionally showing how this effect is stronger in the case of heritage sites compared to non-heritage sites. To the best of our knowledge, our results are among the first to show how a lack of altruism in CSR activities can negatively affect the target of the campaign (in this particular case a tourist attraction). Results also suggest managers of tourist attractions with high heritage value to assess the altruistic motives of the firm carefully before engaging in a financial partnership.

Increasing consumer scepticism about corporate behaviour has led companies to actively manage and advertise their corporate brands. However, it remains unclear how receptive consumers across different markets have been to such efforts. This study examines (i) consumer involvement (a motivational state activated by personal relevance of a stimuli) levels and (ii) processes with corporate advertising to demonstrate differences and similarities with product advertising across multiple markets. Using between subject experimental design, the study was conducted across three different markets with varying degrees of economic development i.e. USA (n = 285), France (n = 217) and Pakistan (n=311). Results demonstrate that consumer involvement levels with corporate advertising is higher in USA than in France and Pakistan. American consumers tend to be involved with corporate advertising as much as they are with product advertising, whereas, French and Pakistani consumers are more involved with product advertising. Apart from differences in involvement levels, study findings demonstrate substantial similarities in involvement processing and how they impact ad attitude and consumers’ behaviour across both the markets. The study holds importance for corporate communication and product managers with cross national responsibilities as it establishes differences and similarities for corporate and product ad involvement across developed and emerging markets.