Colorectal cancer (CRC) poses a significant global public health challenge, accounting for 10% of newly diagnosed cancer cases and causing 9.4% of cancer-related deaths. Conventional treatment methods like surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation have shown limited success despite the increasing incidence of CRC. Thus, there is an urgent need for innovative therapeutic approaches. Researchers are continually working on developing novel technologies, notably focused on the creation of safe and effective cancer nanomedicines, in their continuous effort to advance cancer treatment. Nanoparticles exist at the nanoscale. Nanoparticles at the nanoscale have distinctive properties that leverage the metabolic disparities between cancerous and normal cells. This property allows them to selectively induce substantial cytotoxicity in cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissue. Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), including graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanodiamonds (NDs), have undergone extensive investigation due to their biocompatibility, surface-to-volume ratio, thermal conductivity, rigid structural properties, and ability for post-chemical modifications. Notably, GO has emerged as a promising two-dimensional (2D) material for cancer treatment. Several groundbreaking nanoparticle-based therapies, predominantly utilizing GO, are currently undergoing clinical trials, with some already gaining regulatory clearance.

Carbon nanomaterials: a promising avenue in colorectal cancer treatment
    Abstract
        Graphical abstract 
    1 Introduction
    2 Carbon-based nanoparticles and their characteristics
        2.1 Fullerenes
        2.2 Carbon nanotubes
        2.3 Graphene and its derivatives
            2.3.1 Reduced graphene oxide
            2.3.2 Graphene oxide nanocomposites
            2.3.3 Nanodiamonds (NDs)
    3 Biocompatibility and toxicity of carbon nanomaterials
    4 Carbon-based nanoparticles in colorectal cancer therapy
        4.1 Chemotherapy in colorectal cancer therapy
            4.1.1 Role nanodiamonds in colorectal cancer therapy
            4.1.2 Graphene oxide nanoparticles for colorectal cancer therapy
            4.1.3 Advancements and challenges in the integration of carbon-based nanoparticles and chemotherapy for colorectal cancer treatment
        4.2 Phototherapy in colorectal cancer therapy
            4.2.1 Graphene oxide nanoparticles in colorectal cancer therapy
            4.2.2 Challenges and innovations in carbon-based nanoparticles and phototherapy for colorectal cancer treatment
        4.3 Combined drug delivery of nanoparticles in colorectal cancer therapy
            4.3.1 Nanodiamonds for colorectal cancer therapy
            4.3.2 Graphene and its derivatives for colorectal cancer therapy
            4.3.3 Carbon nanotubes in colorectal cancer therapy
            4.3.4 Overcoming challenges with carbon-based nanoparticles and integrated drug-delivery systems in colorectal cancer therapy
    5 Future perspectives and concluding remarks
    Acknowledgements 
    References

• Marzieh Ramezani Farani(Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, NanoBio High‑Tech Materials Research Center, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea) Corresponding author
• Mandana Lak(Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran)
• William C. Cho(Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Kowloon, Hong Kong)
• Haneul Kang(Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, NanoBio High‑Tech Materials Research Center, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea)
• Maryam Azarian(Department of Bioanalytical Ecotoxicology, UFZ–Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Leipzig, Germany, Department of Radiology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany)
• Fatemeh Yazdian(Department of Life Science Engineering, Faculty of New Science and Technologies, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran)
• Sharareh Harirchi(Department of Biotechnology, Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3353‑5111, Tehran, Iran)
• Keyvan Khoshmaram(Department of Life Science Engineering, Faculty of New Science and Technologies, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran)
• Iraj Alipourfard(Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw, Poland)
• Kiavash Hushmandi(Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, Division of Epidemiology and Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran)
• Seung‑Kyu Hwang(Manufacturing Innovation School, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea) Corresponding author
• Yun Suk Huh(Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, NanoBio High‑Tech Materials Research Center, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea)