In this paper, the injectors with normal quantity, over quantity of +10%, under quantities of -10% and –30%, were mounted on S-ENG and P-ENG in order to measure the voltage energy, current energy and power supplied to the injectors and the fuel economy under several speed of rpm conditions. The voltage and current energy of S-ENG was greater than P-ENG, and the power of S-ENG was measured and analyzed 4.8 times higher than that of P-ENG at all injectors, and the tendency of carbon dioxide emissions calculated from fuel efficiency measurement results was not significantly affected by the type of injectors, but P-ENG was measured to be slightly affected by the type of injectors. It is assumed that the model year and mileage of the test vehicle affects this tendency.

본 연구는 4차 산업혁명의 핵심 산업으로 주목받고 있는 스마트홈 관련 산업의 국민경제적 파급효과를 정량적으로 분석하여 그 잠재성을 평가하였다. 이를 위해 선행연구들에 대한 문헌검토(literature review)를 통해 스마트홈 관련 산업을 제조업과 서비스업으로 분류하고 외생화하였다. 그리고 2018년 산업연관표를 이용하여 이들 산업이 유발하는 생산, 부가가치, 고용 및 취업효과와 산업간 연쇄효과를 분석하였다. 분석결과 스마트홈 제조업과 서비스업은 각 산업 영역에서 타 산업에 비해 높은 수준의 부가가치유발효과를 보였으며 스마트홈 산업 내부적으로는 제조업의 서비스업 생산 견인 기능이 상대적으로 더 크게 나타났 다. 또한 4차 산업혁명기술을 활용하는 산업답게 기술집약적인 산업과의 연관성이 높을 뿐만 아니라 스마트시티, 스마트카, 핀테크 등을 구현하기 위한 서비스 부문과도 깊이 연관되어 있음을 확인하였다. 한편 스마트홈 제조업은 후방파급효과가 전방파급효과에 비해 상대적으로 높은 최종 수요적 산업인 반면 스마트홈 서비스업은 전방파급효과가 후방파급효과에 비해 상대적으로 높게 나타나 중간재 산업으로서 타 산업으로의 공급 기능이 높은 산업임을 알 수 있었다.

The purpose of this study is to explore the value structure of sharing economy for consumers, and to construct a model of consumers' continuoususe intentionin the sharing economy. Firstly, based on the characteristics of sharing economy platform technology, this paper explores the composition of platform value (time adaptability, location adaptability, content accessibility) through qualitative analysis. Then through quantitative analysis, this paper explores the influence of platform value on consumers' perception of emotional value and economic value. Finally, on this basis, this paper studies the impact of consumer value of sharing economy on consumer behavior, and compares and analyzes the impact of consumer value of sharing economy on consumers under different product types. In short, this paper aims to study the value creation of sharing economy from the perspective of consumption value, and shape its future development direction.

본 연구는 북한과 유사한 경제사회 조건을 지닌 아프리카 취약국가에서의 위기 전이 현상에 대한 분석을 북한에 실험적으로 적용해보는 것은, 북한에 대한 이해 증진에 있어 유의미할 수 있다는 시각에 기초 한다. 이러한 시각아래 2018년 8월부터 경제사회 위기가 표면화된 짐 바브웨 사례를 기술해보았다. 최근 모두 역의 경제 성장을 기록하고 있 는 짐바브웨와 북한은 낮은 경제자유도, 경제규모, 산업구조 및 무역 형태 등에서 유사성을 지닌다. 또한 양국 모두 경상수지 적자가 누적된 상황에서 각각 미국 및 미국과 유엔 제재 아래 있어 외환 확보 제약에 직면해있다. 2017년말 37년 무가베 독재 종언이후 표면화된 짐바브웨 상황은 정치변동, 물가상승, 외환시장 왜곡, 보건 위기, 사회인프라 붕 괴가 상호 악순환 고리를 형성하고 있음을 보여준다. 북한이 기본 경제 조건의 왜곡 문제를 안고 있는 상황에서, 코로나 사태는 북한에서 짐바 브웨에서 나타난 경제사회 분야 악순환 고리 형성 및 작동 가능성을 제기하고 있다.

A sharing economy has emerged through today’s trust-building mechanisms, and a sharing economy is called a future economic model through a positive future market prospect. In this context, while the overseas sharing economic business is becoming a global trend, the domestic sharing economic business is busy following the global trend. The purpose of this study is to investigate the development direction of sharing economic business in Korea. First, the sharing economic cases of 50 oversea and domestic businesses were analyzed by time series analysis. Next, a cross-country analysis to analyze the business distribution and KCERN's sharing economic model through sharing economic cube model was conducted. Finally, profit model analysis through business case study and the relationship between the derived factors were investigated. As a result of the analysis, this study found comparative trends between overseas and domestic including differences in cultural and institutional environments and profit models. This study suggested directions for domestic sharing economy business.

사마천은 국가의 富보다는 개인의 富 창출 욕구를 긍정적 시선으로 보고 있으며, 致富 과정에서 지리적 환경과 개인 역량의 중요성을 피력하였다. 사마천은 시장의 자발성을 강조하면서 유통의 중요성을 역설하고 누구든 富를 통해 신분이 격상될 수 있다고 구체적으로 적시 하여 설명하고 있다. 사마천은 유통 경제의 발전이 환경조건과 결합 되어 있으며, 이런 점을 이용하지 않으면 부의 축적은 힘들 수 있음을 인식하였다. 즉, 교통의 요건 등을 감안한 입지 선택이야말로 투자 전략의 기본 전제조건임을 설파하였으며, 이것이 致富를 위한 관건임을 도시별, 직업군별 사례로 들어 설명했다. 사마천의 이러한 지리적 환경 분석과 해당 지역의 物産양상 및 도시경제 위주의 경제지도 완성은 탁월한 식견을 보여주고 있어 영향력이 상당한데, 이는 답사를 통해 치밀하게 지리와 경제의 상관관계를 고찰한데서 나왔다. 또 사마천의 자율경쟁정책은 漢 武帝 당시 鹽鐵의 專賣 등 국가의 경제독점권 및 과도한 조세 징수로 인한 문제점에 대한 비판과 대안의 성격도 아울러 지니고 있음을 고찰하였다.

이 연구는 국가경쟁력을 향상시키는 조건으로서 기술창업의 역할에 대해 분석 한다. 기업가의 지식확산이론(Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship)을 기반으로, 국가 내 기술기반 창업의 비중이 국가경쟁력을 높이는 데 어떠한 영향을 주는지 분석한다. 또한 국가경제개발 단계 측면에서 혁신주도형경제(Innovation-driven economy)에 해당 되는 경우 국가경쟁력에 미치는 기술창업의 영향력이 어떻게 조절되는지 살펴본다. 2011년 부터 2014년까지 83개 국가의 기술창업, 국가경쟁력지수, 경제개발단계 등의 데이터를 기반으로 분석한 결과, 국가 내 기술창업비율은 국가경쟁력과 U자형 관계를 가진다는 점을 확인 했다. 또한 국가 발전단계 상혁신주도형경제에 해당되는 국가의 경우 이 관계는 강화되는 방향으로 조절되는 점을 확인했다. 이 연구는 기술 기반의 창업 비율이 증가할수록 국가경쟁력에 무조건 긍정적 영향을 미치지 않으며 상황과 조건이 잘 맞아야 함을 강조한다.

점차 강화되는 배출가스 규제와 적은 연료로 많은 거리를 주행할 수 있는 고효율 자동차에 대한 요구로 에너지소비효율에 대한 관심이 점차 늘어나고 있다. 국내의 에너지소비효율은 도심주행모드와 고속도로 모드를 주행하여 복합연비로 산정하고 5-Cycle 보정식을 이용하여 최종 에너지소비효율을 표시하고 있다. 에너지소비효율의 경우 카본발란스법에 의하여 산출되는데 이때 배출가스에 의해 계산이 됨에 따라 연소에 사용되는 연료는 자동차 성능과 에너지소비효율에 매우 중요한 역할을 하게 된다. 자동차 연료의 경우 국내에서는 석유 및 석유대체연료 사업법 품질기준에 따라 국내에 유통되고 있는데 정유사의 정제 방법이나 원유에 따라 품질 기준 내에서 물성 차이를 보일 수 있다. 일정 품질기준을 정하고 있음에 따라 연료별 큰 차이는 나지 않을 것으로 보이나 자동차의 성능에는 영향을 미칠 수 있어 그에 따른 연구가 필요한 실정이다. 따라서, 본 연구에서는 시중에서 유통되고 있는 연료 중 여름철에 판매되는 경유를 정유사 직영점을 통해 구매하였으며, 각 시료별 물성을 분석하고 그에 따른 에너지소비효율을 측정하였다. 에너지소비효율의 경우 현행 경유 자동차의 에너지소비효율 산정식과 휘발유 에너지소비효율에서 사용되는 산출식을 이용하여 물성 적용에 따른 변화를 살펴보았다. 그 결과 시료별 밀도는 최대 약 0.9%의 차이를 보였으며, 순발열량은 1.6%의 차이를 보였으며, 현행 에너지소비효율 산출 결과에서는 도심모드에서 약 1%, 고속모드에서 1.4% 차이를 보였다. 휘발유 산출식을 이용한 산출에서는 현행 에너지소비효율 산출때 보다 약 6%정도 낮은 수치를 보였으며, 각 시료별 에너지소비효율은 최대 도심과 고속에서 최대 약 1.4%의 차이를 보였다.

Green crowdfunding – fundraising for green initiatives – has become a growing source of alternative finance for sustainable entrepreneurs. The current paper explores the business model of green crowdfunding from three perspectives, i.e. funders, founders and platform. We pay special attention to how green crowdfunding extends consumers‘ involvement in sustainable economy.

Introduction The idiom “you are what you own” has been considerably transformed into “you are what you can access”. The shift from ownership to access, the results of endless hyper-consumption, and the change in value mindsets initiated a new phenomenon, which is Sharing Economy (SE). SE has grown rapidly and refers to an entirely new business model, socio-economic ecosystem, and context for sharing the access to goods and services in technology-enabled peer-to-peer (P2P) ecosystems or consumer-to-consumer (C2C) engagement platforms. According to Botsman and Rogers (2010), SE is a result of the linkage between offline and online world, which was triggered by the society to overcome natural resources constraints. Resources in SE can be tangible (e.g., cars and homes) and intangible (e.g., expert local knowledge and labor). SE allows the sustainable use of idle resources, and it enables sellers to create new and flexible opportunities to market to consumers who experience personalized and even customized products and services at lower prices (Yang, Song, Chen, & Xia, 2017). SE opened up new horizons for a considerable number of new players across industries from a supply perspective by broadening the options for supply, which also remedies the response to peak demand. SE has given a rise to the humanization of consumer-supplier relationship in tourism and hospitality (TH), and sharing has become a mainstream practice in this context. The recent shift of customers‟ willingness to share accommodation with a host as opposed to using a private hotel room has many implications for TH (Lu & Kandampully, 2016). For example, Airbnb has become one of the most prominent competitors in hotel industry, and it enables people to lease or rent short-term accommodation including vacation rentals, apartment rentals, homestays, and even experiences via instant booking. From cash-strapped travelers to high-end business travelers, Airbnb has revolutionized the TH service in a new form of contractual relationship and gained a well-grounded popularity. Some scholars, on the other hand, argued that SE is a “fundamentally different business model” which could make it a new marketplace instead of a direct competitor in hotel industry. From this point of view, Airbnb do not compete or pose a challenge to traditional TH services but extend the concept of TH (Lu & Kandampully, 2016). Hotel industry has reactively responded to the direct, indirect, and induced effects of Airbnb to economy, and Airbnb‟s impact on hotel industry have recently been researched by several scholars (Mody, Suess, & Lehto, 2017; Priporas, Stylos, Rahimi, & Vedanthachari, 2017; Zervas, Proserpio, & Byers, 2017). Customer engagement in TH has been empirically found to enhance customers‟ service brand evaluation, brand trust, and brand loyalty (So, King, Sparks, & Wang, 2016). Guests attach great importance to motivational drivers, more meaningful “beyond-purchase” social interactions and unique experiences in authentic settings, which give rise to customer engagement beyond the service encounter. Disruptive innovation theory also states that products or services that offer alternative benefits compared to conventional attributes can transform a market and attain a critical mass, which can be observed in Airbnb‟s story (Young, Corsun, & Xie, 2017). Airbnb is successfully promoting the mottos of “Belong Anywhere” and “Don’t Go There. Live There” to their guests. The feelings of trust and belonging were negatively changed by mass production and noncustom travel experiences, and people sometimes forgot the meaning of community due to high tendency of prestige and advertising. Consumers‟ changing attitudes towards utilization and accessibility compared to ownership created an indirect need for intimate connection between people, namely human connection. Then, social concerns upon products and services gave a rise to mass-customized product and service expectations of consumers. This is where Airbnb‟s value proposition comes into play. First, it creates not only financial but also personal rewards through a “personal concierge” and a “home away from home” experience. Second, Airbnb is not a simple transaction, rather it is deemed to be a lifetime experience. So “guest experience” is at the heart of Airbnb‟s strategic position. From the “experience” point of view, SE has also opened up new rooms for service research. Service in the context of Airbnb is considered as an experience, rather than a utilitarian relation. Also, service quality has always been a critical factor in highly-competitive service industries like TH. Service quality perception is multi-faceted, and the studies focusing on it are rather limited, especially in hotel industry. These studies highlighted the complexities associated with evaluating service quality and the contribution of service process delivery on service outcomes, which results in the perception of service quality. Therefore, perceived service quality can be influenced by different internal processes and interpersonal variables. In order to study service quality in Airbnb, the types of settings in this context are to be noted. There are two main types of hosting via Airbnb: (1) remote hospitality, which refers to hosting situations in which the host does not physically share the place with the guest (e.g. booking the entire place), and (2) on-site hospitality, where the host is physically present and sharing the apartment with the guest. Mainly, on-site hospitality is an important part of the sociability within the host–guest relationship. Priporas et al. (2017) studied service quality in the context of remote hospitality, and we decided to respond to their relevant call for future research on the other type of Airbnb accommodation, which is on-site hospitality referring to “Shared Rooms” and “Private Rooms” in Airbnb‟s listings. “Shared Rooms” refer to an exact communal experience with the host, and guests sleep in a space that is shared with others and share the entire space with other people. “Private Rooms” refer to privacy, to some extent, in which guests (i) value a local connection (ii) have their own private room for sleeping and (iii) may share some spaces with others. We do expect that human connection and experience gap can be better researched with on-site hospitality existing in “Shared Rooms” and “Private Rooms”. This is because hosts design their services to create and build a relationship with their guests, leading to superior guest experiences and the so-called positive moment-of-truth. In addition to the online storytelling on hosts‟ home pages, the most important moment-of-truth is created during the guests‟ stay at the host‟s place; thus, the host plays a major role in the customer‟s perception of service and the subsequent review of the experience (Lu & Kandampully, 2016). Considering the previously mentioned “experience gap” in the literature, our research question and relevant sub-questions are as follows: • What are the antecedents of perceived service quality in Airbnb on-site hospitality? o How well does SERVQUAL suffice for measuring perceived service quality in this context? o How well the cognitive and attitudinal factors expand this measurement? o What are the additional perceived service quality factors that can be derived from guests‟ online textual reviews to remedy the “experience gap”? Literature review Cheng (2016) conducted a systematic review of SE by using co-citation and content analysis of papers, and the findings reveal three distinct research areas of SE: (1) SE‟s business models and its impacts, (2) Nature of SE, and (3) SE‟s sustainability development. Moreover, two unique areas, specifically in TH, were identified: (1) SE‟s impacts on destinations and TH services and (2) SE‟s impacts on tourists. The comparison of both literatures has revealed limited expansion in TH literature despite the fact that TH are at the frontier of SE (Cheng, 2016). Pesonen and Tussyadiah (2017) conducted cluster analysis to identify user profiles corresponding to consumer motivations for using TH services of SE. They concluded that a consumer group uses TH services of SE to make their trips more convenient, while another group uses these services mostly for social reasons. Yang et al. (2017) studied the loyalty in SE services from relational benefits perspective and concluded that confidence and social benefits have significant and positive effects on commitment in SE services. Molz (2014) introduced the term „Network Hospitality‟, which is relatively new and rooted in old traditions of welcoming strangers. Airbnb represents just one of many types of network hospitality, and in Airbnb, trust is almost shaped based on peer reviews, not solely on one-to-one peer interactions. The online review information becomes the basis for members‟ reputation in the network. The information accumulated on Airbnb‟s online platform helps both parties to establish their reputation, as well as publicizing their personalities, thereby facilitating the process of finding the best match. Moreover, there are hundreds of people working in Airbnb‟s customer service, trust, and safety departments who are devoted to ensuring the intimacy provision of trusted services. Airbnb requires all hosts to abide by their “Hospitality Standards”, which include expected levels of cleanliness, commitment, and communication. The flexibility, reliability, and consistency of Airbnb‟s service providers help them to build and maintain the relationship Airbnb enjoys with their guests and hosts (Lu & Kandampully, 2016; Zervas et al., 2017). Pine and Gilmore (1998) predicted the rise of experience in their seminal study, referring to the “experience economy” and also stating “As goods and services become commoditized, the customer experiences that companies create will matter most.” They called this as “Staging Experiences”. Also, there exists evidence in literature that providers are shifting their focus from product- and service-oriented to design of quality experiences. In terms of the glamour of SE in TH, a “more unique experience” is deemed to be second only to better pricing. Airbnb may eventually address all elements of the accommodation experience, from travel reservations to ticketing for local attractions. Consumers are looking for local authenticity in their travels. Psychological authenticity refers to emotional genuineness, self-attunement, and psychological depth (Walls, Okumus, Wang, & Kwun, 2011). If TH industry is to surpass its SE competition in terms of guest experience, it should leverage an expanded experience economy paradigm that incorporates additional dimensions (Mody et al., 2017). Authentic host-guest experiences probably only exist between like-minded and privileged members who possess high cultural capital (Cheng, 2016). With that, Walls et al. (2011) have suggested the need for researchers to identify specific dimensions “that exist in both our everyday and tourist experiences”. Both in Airbnb and traditional TH, guest satisfaction and likelihood to reuse are driven by similar factors such as quality and utility of services, trust to the host, and economic value. There are several models for measuring service quality, including SERVQUAL (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988) and SERVPERF (Cronin & Taylor, 1992). Service quality literature received widespread attention after the seminal work by Parasuraman et al. (1988) as they proposed the gap model and developed SERVQUAL (an attribute-based technique) as a tool for measuring service quality. According to SERVQUAL, service quality consists of five dimensions measured by a total of 22 items. The proposed five service quality dimensions are tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. SERVQUAL basically requires measures of expectations and performance, and service quality is calculated from subtractions between these two components (i.e., performance [P] - expectations [E]). Regarding service quality in TH, Akbaba (2006) utilized SERVQUAL for business hotels, and Priporas et al. (2017) inquired SERVQUAL‟s applicability in Airbnb context with promising results. The major distinction between two research directions (i.e. hotels vs. Airbnb) is that even though guests expect similar core services such as clean rooms and comfortable beds, different attributes support the competitive advantage of hotels and Airbnb. While conveniences offered by hotels are unparalleled by Airbnb accommodation, the latter appeal to consumers driven by experiential and social motivations (Pesonen & Tussyadiah, 2017). Research model This research aims to identify the antecedents of perceived service quality of guests‟ in Airbnb on-site hospitality context. Our research model is presented in Figure 1, and it is subject to enhancement through the analytics of guest reviews. A survey will be developed to test the proposed research model. The items of constructs will be mainly derived from extant literature and enriched with the linguistic and textual analysis of reviews. Firstly, factors shaping expectation are predicted as per the literature and preliminary analysis of random guest reviews: (i) host‟s reputation capital (e.g., ratings and reviews), (ii) host‟s photos, (iii) guest‟s past accommodation experience, and (iv) word of mouth. Secondly, SERVQUAL part in the model is the same as proposed by Parasuraman et al. (1988). Last but not least, Airbnb is deemed to promote global geographical imaginaries (e.g., collaboration, social equity, solidarity, community, trust, reciprocity, altruism, autonomy, intimacy, and authenticity) to justify their business model (O‟Regan & Choe, 2017). Finally, regarding the guest review analysis, Airbnb has a detailed review mechanism, and we have gathered the publicly available reviews that are up to 500 words. We have observed cognitive and attitudinal dimensions within reviews through text analytics and grouped those in the research model as follows: • Intimacy: The emergence of intimacy as a commercial value in TH industry has been researched. (e.g., How well people know each other? How people occupy space together? How people share private information, family pictures, furniture choice etc.?) (Prager, 1997) • Authenticity: We focus on the existential authenticity (i.e., being one‟s true self or being true to one‟s essential nature) from guests‟ perceptions (e.g., Is Airbnb like ‘living the local life’?) (Lalicic & Weismayer, 2017) • Commitment: It refers to the consistent behavior of Airbnb hosts in terms of social and cost components. (e.g., How well hosts abide by Airbnb policies and procedures? Do hosts have ongoing effectiveness of service?) (Lu & Kandampully, 2016) • Privacy: It refers to the psychological zone to disclose personal and cultural values. Informational and physical privacy threats are important in Airbnb context (Lutz, Hoffmann, Bucher, & Fieseler, 2017). • Security: It refers to the state of being free from danger or threat. According to Yang and Ahn (2016), security in Airbnb‟s services is a more powerful antecedent of attitude toward Airbnb than significant dimensions of motivation toward SE, such as enjoyment and reputation. With that we will only elaborate on interpersonal security in Airbnb (i.e., between host and guest, not between guest and Airbnb). Conclusion SE is a fairly new and multi-disciplined field that covers open rooms for research, and specifically, Airbnb is one of the most prominent businesses in this context. The literature review presented underlies the infancy of well-grounded studies covering service quality perceptions of customers in SE. Seeking for additional dimensions from Airbnb guests‟ reviews is a novel research approach in studying customer engagement, and those dimensions shall be included in the research model. This research has certain limitations. Our perceived service quality conceptualization requires empirical validation to establish the boundaries of the construct. The guest reviews in Airbnb are subject to data quality issues. Also, reviews should contain substantial amount of words up to a certain threshold. Data collection from emerging world regions is rather tough since Airbnb is not widespread across those regions. Thus, US and European countries will be firstly taken into account, where the use of Airbnb is quite common. The study is expected to provide useful insights for TH practitioners and managers. It can underlie the factors that trigger customer engagement in this context. Cognitive/attitudinal factors are foreseen as the differentiators, which stand as the basis for service design and delivery.

Attitudes toward advertising as an institution remain an important research topic in developing countries. Even in the West, the issue is currently being revisited to update for various online media contexts. This paper examines attitudes toward advertising among college students in Egypt. There was little difference in attitudes depending on whether they were thinking of traditional TV advertising or advertising on social media, although they use SM much more frequently. Generally the respondents agreed with a range of issues related to the beneficial aspects of advertising, and only slightly agreed or were roughly neutral on most issues related to detrimental effects. There is strong support for laws about ‘truth-in-advertising’ and legal responsibility for claims, but only weak support for direct government control of advertising.

The revitalisation of a craft economy: the case of scottish knitting In the 1980s, Vivienne Weir knitted for money at home, her skills – little remunerated – realising in luxurious yarns the fashionable imaginings of a local designer. In 2018 Kate Davies knits at home, her skills the foundation of a successful eponymous knitwear design and yarn production business. What separates these women is more than time – in contemporary Scotland, knitting is a valid and valued entrepreneurial pursuit, and so-called home knitters form part of a vast network of crafters whose turn from home craft to design-focused entrepreneurship represents a significant contribution to the £1billion per annum that the fashion and textile industries generate for Scotland. Through analysis of the business activities of both women, collected through personal testimony interviews, this paper examines the revitalisation of knitting in Scotland as a viable and lucrative entrepreneurial activity. It compares and contrasts the historical case study of Vivienne who was not afforded the opportunity to realise her potential and make a business from her skills, with the contemporary story of Kate who has translated her skills in hand-knitting and passion for design into a profitable enterprise. It argues that the revitalisation of the craft economy of knitting in Scotland has been galvanized by the rise of a new generation of knitters determined to rewrite the Scottish aesthetic lexicon in knitwear design, a new appreciation for the heritage and tradition of skilled knitting, and a new-found understanding of the economic, social, and cultural value of knit craft. In an age of increasing automation in fashion and textiles, and concerns around the social and environmental impacts of massmanufacturing, this paper demonstrates the importance of a dynamic craft economy in knitting to the Scottish fashion and textile industries.

For better understanding user behavior, especially exploring what factors would motivate user engagement in sharing economy and whether there are some differences between people behaviors in sharing economy and conventional economy, this research developed a conceptual framework of user engagement (UE) in sharing economy on the basis of customer engagement and related literature and tested it through empirical analysis.

Marketing in the sharing economy The shift on the enhanced complexity of customers‟ needs has created a new business model termed as the sharing economy emerging through the traditional B2B2C sector, and substituted with micro-entrepreneurs who act as service providers (Kumar, Lahiri, and Dogan, n.d.). The importance of the sharing economy is based on the fact that in a short period of time it has managed to disrupt well-established fields (i.e.: taxi and accommodation industry), through the provision of low-cost convenience without the ownership responsibility (Eckhardt & Bardhi, 2015). In general, the sharing economy service providers are not responsible for marketing and promotional aspects since this is an aspect taken care of the service enablers (i.e.: Airbnb). In the sharing economy, marketing needs to focus on the development of early adopters, meaning younger generations (Laciana & Rovere, 2011), since they are the largest generational cohort, and are expected to remain the largest one for the forthcoming decades (Fry, 2016), whilst they have a considerably lower spending capacity than older people (Henderson, 2016). Therefore, younger generations select cost-efficient options and engage in utility-based brand switching (Kumar et al., n.d.). As a result, sharing economy marketing strategies mainly focus on apps or websites where their existing customers may visit (McAlone, 2016). Moreover, multigenerational marketing is considered as a rational segmentation strategy for service enablers (Eckhardt & Bardhi, 2015), since the older a generation is the lower the general adoption rates in sharing economy marketing (Hall & Krueger, 2015). Still, the complex decision-making of consumers in sharing economy‟s marketing is affected by several factors such as price and quality issues and the associated risks (Pappas, 2017). Despite the importance of sharing economy in modern business, the literature is silent on the complexity of aspects affecting the related marketing activities. The paper examines the complexity of marketing activities formulation examining peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation holidaymakers in Athens, Greece. It specifically evaluates the impact of risks, price and quality issues, and social aspects, on P2P accommodation marketing activities, also including the socio-demographics of age and income. The research contribution is in both, theoretical and methodological domains. In terms of literature the study provides an understanding of the complexity formulation of marketing activities, with special reference to the sharing economy. Methodologically-wise, the research implements fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA), which is considered new to the study of tourism and hospitality (Pappas & Papatheodorou, 2017). It further compares fsQCA suitability with regression, which is the dominant correlational mode of analysis. Study tenets In service industry research the term „tenet‟ is used to describe testable precepts able to identify complex conditions (Papatheodorou & Pappas, 2017). This study has formulated six tenets: (T1) The same attribute has the ability to determine a different decision for marketing activities depending on its configuration with other attributes (T2) A complex configuration with at least two simple conditions can leads to an outcome condition that can have a consistently high score (Recipe principle) (T3) Complex configurations can influence the marketing activities for P2P holidaymakers (T4) When the combinations differ on the simple conditions of configurations, they can influence in a positive or negative manner the marketing activities for P2P holidaymakers (T5) Sufficient marketing activities do not always result in a high outcome score (Equifinality principle), and (T6) When the Y scores are high, a given recipe for the marketing activities is not relevant for all cases. Complexity in tourism Complexity theory focuses on complex systems with nonlinear dynamics, characterised by self-organisation, emergence, and evolution (Arévalo & Espinosa, 2015). The theory is used to evaluate the nonparametric, and dynamic processes of complex phenomena in several different disciplines (Olya & Al-ansi, 2018). Tourism complexity is based on several conflicting elements, such as the translocal relationships and multilocality, the heterogeneity of actors, the places and governance globalisation, and the extreme diversity of operations (Darbellay & Stock, 2012). Moreover, tourism deals with complex policies involving multiple actors, and a perpetually changing multi-level coordination in a local, national and international level (Lai, Hsu, and Wearing 2016). The degree of behavioural complexity renders Newtonian (linear) thinking inadequate and highlights the necessity for nonparametric (nonlinear) research (Laws & Prideaux, 2005). Method The study was held in Athens, Greece in adult P2P accommodation holidaymakers. Following the study of Pappas (2017), structured questionnaires were distributed to the P2P rentals, asking from the holidaymakers to fill them in during their stay. As Akis, Peristianis and Warner (1996) suggest, the study‟s sample size should have a minimum of 95 percent level of confidence and a maximum of 5 percent statistical error, whilst the most conservative response of 50/50 (meaning half of the respondents would express positive views and the other half negative ones) was adopted. For N>20, t-table defines cumulative probability (Z) in 1.96 level. Following Akis et al. (1996), the sample size calculation is: Rounded to 400 In total, 712 useful responses were collected, generating a statistical error of 3.67 per cent. The questionnaire consists of 24 Likert scale statements adopted from previous research, including two socio-demographic questions (age; income). The study employed fsQCA for the evaluation of complex configurations. fsQCA is considered a mixed method since it employs quantitative testing and qualitative inductive reasoning, and it is able to examine the potential complex relationships that have a bearing upon the outcome of interest, and identifies combinations of binary sets generated from its predictors. Since the research also estimated negated sets (presence or absence of a simple condition), the symbol “~” was used for the indication of an attributional absence. Research calibration was made by using 42 randomly selected individual cases. For the evaluation of the marketing activities „f_ma‟ affecting holidaymakers, the calibrated fuzzy-sets used were „f_a‟ for age, „f_i‟ for income, „f_r‟ for risks, „f_sa‟ for social aspects, „f_pi‟ for price issues, and „f_qi‟ for quality issues. Results Three sufficient configurations emerged from the research. More specifically, the first solution (f_a*f_i*~f_r*~f_sa*f_pi*f_qi) concerns the price-quality nexus, the second configuration (f_a*~f_i*f_r*~f_sa*f_pi*~f_qi) deals with price sensitivity, and the third one (f_a*~f_i*f_r*f_sa*~f_pi*f_qi) focuses on social interaction. The generated solutions for marketing activities are presented in the table below. The results indicate that all four simple conditions appear in at least one solution (T1), whilst at least two simple conditions are included in each sufficient configuration (T2). Moreover, the findings suggest that the solutions focus on: (i) price-quality nexus (ii) price sensitivity, and (iii) social interaction (T3). In addition, none of the simple conditions appears in all configurations (T4), and three different solutions seem to lead to the same outcome (T5). Finally, the coverage varies from .429 to .453, meaning that none of the solutions applies in all cases (T6). As a result, the findings confirm the six tenets of the study. fsQCA versus regression The study used a structural equation model for the examination of linear relationships, and implemented Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), since the sum of the examined items is based on previous analytic research. Due to the large sample (N=712) χ2/df instead of χ2 was selected, since it is considered as a better estimate of goodness (Chen & Chai, 2007). Following Kline (2010), the research estimated the four most important fit indices: χ2=634.921, df=352, χ2/df=1.803 (acceptable value 0≤χ2/df≤2 [Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger & Müller, 2003]), CFI=.902 (acceptable value is when CFI is close to 1.0 [Weston and Gore 2006]), SRMR=.782 (acceptable value is when SRMR<.8 [Hu & Bentler, 1999]), and RMSEA=.475 (acceptable value is when RMSEA<.5 [Browne & Cudeck, 1993]). In factor analysis, all values less than .4 were suppressed (minimum acceptable value .4 [Norman & Streiner, 2008]) in an effort to evaluate higher coefficients. In all constructs, the Average Variance Explained (AVE) was higher than .5 (minimum acceptable .5 [Kim, 2014]), and the convergent validity (CR) higher than .7 (minimum acceptable value: .7 [Huang, Wang, Wu, & Wang, 2013]). The Figure below explains the study‟s endogenous variables. The comparison of fsQCA with regression highlights that the latter cannot encapsulate the full range of alternative combinations, in restricts the presence/absence of a construct or socio-demographic in one outcome, whilst the row coverage in all sufficient configurations (also showcasing high consistency) is higher than the overall R2 (.393). As a result, fsQCA seems to be more efficient than regression concerning the examination of marketing activities on P2P holidaymakers, since it better presents the influence of the constructs under examination. Managerial implications The study offers a number of managerial implications. For starters, through the use of fsQCA, traditional accommodation providers and destinations can better understand complexity aspects of consumer trends, being able to sufficiently reposition their marketing activities. Moreover, fsQCA can assist on the clarification of the factors affecting marketing complexity in tourism and hospitality, and better promote and advertise the products and services in reference. The understanding of complex marketing patterns, can further lead to the formulation of competitive advantages and strengthen the competitiveness of the enterprises engaged in a destination, as well as the destination itself. In addition, destinations can better comprehend the complex evolution of sharing economy and build upon its strengths, aving the opportunity to formulate a cooperative market towards traditional establishments and P2P rentals. Limitations Despite the theoretical and methodological contribution of the study, several limitations need to be highlighted. The main limitation derives from the study‟s main strength, which is the limited application of fsQCA in tourism and hospitality. Much further use of fsQCA in the field could reveal its full potential. Another limitation deals with the examination of other groups, such as the holidaymakers selecting traditional establishments for their stay, P2P stakeholders, and destination authorities. Since different groups of respondents may produce different outcomes, any generalisation of the findings should be made with caution. Finally, if the research is repeated in some other destination or in later time, the focus of the generated complex configurations may alter. Therefore, the results should be carefully interpreted.

Introduction Kotler (2015) warned that, if we only pursue economic growth and revenue/profit expansion, we will end up with overconsumption and wastes, bringing serious damage to our planet. He advocated the transition from the growth-oriented economy to the steady-state economy. Steady state economy is defined as an economy that maintains desired sufficient level of throughput with the lowest feasible flows of matter and energy from production to consumption (Kotler, 2015). As Kotler mentioned, this idea is somewhat utopian as most companies are still living in the growth-oriented economy. The purpose of this research is to extend Kotler’s idea by conceptualizing a more concrete model to visualize the marketing in the steady state economy. The model consists of five major elements; customers, stakeholders, employees, suppliers and community. The authors also present twelve propositions that explain promoting factors for the marketing in the steady state economy based on the multiple case studies conducted in Japan. Literature review The steady-state economy itself is actually not a new idea in economics. For example, typical classical economists (e.g., Adam Smith and John Stewart Mill) advocated the transition to the steady-state economy after saturation of economic growth. Neo-classical economists have also postulated the concept of steady state economy with regard to the law of diminishing returns (Tellis, 2008). Many previous studies have continuously put efforts on developing theories and practices to meet with economic, social and environmental needs simultaneously, since Kotler and Zaltman (1971) proposed the concept of social marketing. Although social marketing is closely related to marketing in the steady-state economy, its ethical egotism remains a problem (Crane and Desmond, 2002). Lerman and Shfrin (2015) and Gopaldas (2015) claim positive marketing which creates value for the firm, its customers, and society at large. In short, these concepts suggest the possibility that individual, self-seeking, and short-run behaviors can be consistent with aggregate, altruistic, and long-run behaviors. Besides above exceptions, however, most marketing researchers have evaded the question: What is marketing in the steady-state economy? The purpose of our study is to develop a conceptual framework to analyze “steady-oriented” companies and their marketing strategies based on the case studies in Japan. Research methodology In order to answer the above question, we adopt qualitative heuristic approaches (Kleining, 1994), because our question has not been addressed enough in previous studies mentioned above. First, we collected primary and secondary data from various information sources including company websites, press releases, online business journals, academic case studies, public seminars, presentations at academic meetings and so on (Yin, 2014). As stated by Eisenhardt (1989), we used a theoretical sampling to identify the informants for our multiple case studies. We intentionally chose companies from different industries, locations, length of history, manufacturing technology, etc. Based on the review and data collection, we developed a basic framework and series of theoretical propositions (Yin, 2014). For our study, we selected Japanese companies respecting “sanpo-yoshi” [good for three parties] philosophy. It is a belief that business should be good for sellers, buyers, and society. In fact, positive marketing is similar to this concept of “sanpo-yoshi” which is based on the family precepts of “Ohmi region merchants” in the Edo period (1600-1857) (Ogura, 1991; Usami 2015). Our selected “sanpo-yoshi” oriented companies aim for a harmonious relationship with all the concerning stakeholders and community (see Appendix for the list of selected companies). Figure 1 identifies five key parties covered in the “sanpo-yoshi” management and shows bilateral relations between the company and the five parties. First, “sanpo-yoshi” oriented companies try to build good long-term relationships not only with their customers by selling high-quality products at fair prices, but also with suppliers by buying a stable volume of products at fair prices. In addition, some companies provide their loyal customers with special experience concerning their own brands and their suppliers with technical assistant. In return, customers feel strong loyalty to the brand and suppliers offer a stable supply of high- quality raw materials at fair prices. Moreover, “sanpo-yoshi” companies take an active interest in their employees and the community where they operate because their confidence contributes to sustainable development of the companies. Shareholders for short-term returns, however, are unlikely to give heavy weight to social activities by their investee companies. Therefore, companies whose stocks are unlisted or occupied by long-term shareholders are more favorably inclined toward “sanpo-yoshi” management. Research propositions Based on the case studies of “sanpo-yoshi” companies in Japan, we argue that the enforcement of marketing in the steady-state economy can be tied to three factors: (1) management factors, (2) competitive factors, and (3) financial factors. Within these factors, twelve research propositions are developed for testing in the future research (Eisenhardt and Gaebner, 2007). These factors and propositions are summarized in Figure 2. Management factors are divided into two subcomponents: decision-making and employment factors. First, decision-making factors basically mean that the independence of management from the investors seeking short-term profits enables the management to enforce steady-oriented marketing. The most feasible method is corporate governance by founders or his/her family, although it is not a requirement. For instance, Kagome Co., Ltd. ended the family business operation in 1996, and around 180,000 individual “fan shareholders” accounting for 55.4% (Nikkei, 2017) are supporting the management with a long-term perspective. Second, employment factors indicate that the companies are likely to enforce steady-oriented marketing when they maintain high labor productivity and excellent human resources. In particular, it is more important for companies having many female employees with accumulated experience and know-hows to prevent those employees from quitting the job because of pregnancy or child rearing. Competitive factors are associated with the conditions of the steady state economy surrounding the companies. If the companies have maintained high market share in a mature market for many years, they can afford to enforce “sanpo-yoshi” oriented marketing for sustainability. In terms of financial factors, equity ratio shows the soundness of management, which has positive effects on the enforcement of marketing in the steady state economy. Moreover, ROE measures a company’s profitability by revealing how much profit a company generates with the money which its shareholders have invested. Finally, payout ratio provides valuable insight into a company’s dividend policy. Higher payout ratio indicates that the company is sharing more of its earnings with the shareholders. Implications The findings of this research contribute to the academics by providing a new framework for the marketing in the steady state economy. Further research can empirically test the proposed model in various countries to investigate if this framework is culturally specific to Japan or not. This research also provides practical implications for managers. For sustainable business and better society, companies should keep their eyes on the five elements presented in our research. Thus we can take the very first step for the marketing in the steady state economy.

The dual processes of cognition and affect impact consumers’ choice of sharing economy-based experiential tourism. Prior knowledge of sharing economy technologies and favourable attitude toward sharing economy impact consumers’ intention to adopt a peer-to-peer experiential tourist service. Data from 150 respondents and OLS and OLogit analyses supported the hypothesis.

Ever since the notion of a sharing economy was highlighted by Time Magazine as one of the ten ideas that will one day change the world, there has been a significant increase in scholarly attention dedicated to investigating the impact sharing economies will have on individuals, organizations and society as a whole. Particularly, sharing economy has revolutionized the landscape of the tourism industry through Airbnb (Fang, Ye, & Law, 2016). Academic research has focused on studying consumption practices and behaviors from a recipient perspective, but relatively little attention has been given to understand what impacts sharing economy has, from a sharer point of view (Fagerstrøm, Pawar, Sigurdsson, Foxall, & Yani-de-Soriano, 2017). Specifically, the existing literature has yet to explore in what ways and to what extent sharers are engaged with sharing economy platforms, and explore what consequences accrue from engaging in sharing economy activities. As a result, this paper seeks to fill this gap by proposing a framework drawing on self-determination theory (SDT), in conjunction with a tourism well-being perspective to examine how sharers’ perception of extrinsic rewards indirectly influences their well-being through the mediating role of engagement in tourism sharing economy activities. Data from Airbnb hosts in London were analyzed through PLS. The findings show that hosts’ engagement with Airbnb fully mediates the relationship between extrinsic rewards and their wellbeing. In other words, extrinsic rewards from using the sharing platform have a positive effect on sharers’ engagement in sharing economy activities (Tussyadiah & Pesonen, 2016; Guttentag, 2015). In turn, engagement in sharing economy activities has been found to have a positive effect on the sharers’ well-being (Kim, Uysal, & Sirgy, 2013; Ganju, Pavlou, & Banker, 2016). The paper has some important managerial implications.