Because of their attractive and colorful flowers, many species from the genus Aster serve as garden plants. Chrysanthemum owes its popularity to its ornamental and medicinal herb value. It can be used as a cut flower, potted plant, vegetable, and herbal tea. Plant breeders have attempted to identify the available species and produce new cultivars to improve the quality of chrysanthemum for commercial purposes. The use of cytogenetic studies has paved the way for identifying compatibility, ancestry, and other useful information for this undertaking. Thus, an investigation was conducted into the chromosome numbers of 23 wild Asteraceae species in Republic of Korea to determine their genetic characteristics and variations. The somatic chromosome spread has been used for chromosome counting. The results revealed that Asteraceae species have a chromosome range from 18 (diploid) to 54 (hexaploid). These findings provide primary and important information on the chromosome numbers in chrysanthemum plants that can be used to select the right variety for cultivation.

Chrysanthemum is a valuable ornamental plant worldwide, and several of its species are used as herbal tea, medicinal plants, and dietary supplements, among others. Commercial cultivars have been developed through interspecific hybridization and artificial selection to improve the characteristics, production quality, and environmental adaptation for enhancing ornamental value. To better understand the recent research in cytogenetic studies of chrysanthemum, we examined studies concerning polyploidy, karyotyping, banding, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique, and inter/intraspecific hybridization. Ploidy level is important in genomic characteristics and has a significant value to horticulturists and plant breeders. Studies have reported that flow cytometry analysis and single-dose molecular markers can be used to determine the chrysanthemum ploidy level. As for karyotyping, a better understanding of karyomorphological relationships and evolution of chrysanthemum and its closely related genera has already been gained. Moreover, karyotype parameters in chrysanthemum studies play a critical role in cultivar identification, classification, and genetic analysis. The FISH technique in chrysanthemum research provides more information on chromosome identification, sequences distribution, and evolution for expediting the development and improvement of plant species. The genomic in situ hybridization (GISH) technique can also be used to test hybridization in chrysanthemum breeding. Hence, this review of molecular cytogenetic studies of chrysanthemum will help us to have a better understanding and knowledge of the taxa breeding and the development and improvement of new cultivars.

농촌진흥청 국립원예특작과학원에서 육성된 formolongi-Asiatic(FA)종간잡종 나리 ‘Bonanza’, ‘Coral Candy’, ‘Purple Crystal’의 특성검정 및 FISH 분석을 통한 염색체 검경을 수행하였다. ‘Bonanza’, ‘Coral Candy’, ‘Purple Crystal’의 개화시기는 6월 중하순, 중순, 상순으로 각각 중만생종, 중생종, 조생종에 해당한다. 개화방향은 3품종 모두 상향이며 약간의 향기를 가지고 있다. 절화장은 101.0cm(‘Purple Crystal’)에서부터 142.3cm(‘Bonanza’)로 초장 신장성이 우수하여 절화로서의 개발이 가능하다. 화폭은 ‘Bonanza’와 ‘Coral Candy’가 17,1cm, 16.9cm로 관찰되어 대형화로 분류되며 ‘Purple Crystal’은 12.3cm으로 좁으나 화폭이 4cm 이상으로 화폭이 안정적이다. 잎의 길이는 ‘Bonanza’는 15.7cm, ‘Coral Candy’는 19.7cm, ‘Purple Crystal’은 11.1cm로 관찰되었다. 염색체 분석 결과, 3품종 모두 3배체(2n=3x=36)로 관찰되었다. FISH 분석 결과, ‘Bonanza’, ‘Coral Candy’, ‘Purple Crystal’의 5S/45S rDNA가 각각 4/11 loci, 4/12 loci, 4/11 loci로 관찰되었다. 3번 염색체를 제외하고 나머지 염색체에서 관찰되는 rDNA의 패턴이 달라 FISH 분석에 대한 결과는 품종을 구별하는 마커로 유용하게 이용 될 수 있을 것으로 기대할 수 있다.

To promote global trade governance, both central and peripheral reforms occur in multilateral and regional trade agreements. The central reforms are suggested to enhance the WTO’s efficiency in trade negotiations by engaging in ‘mini-multilateral’ negotiations and soft law-making or to expand its current advantage in dispute settlement by extending its dispute jurisdiction to investor-state disputes or trade disputes arising from PTAs. The peripheral reforms develop in two different routes; one is rule-based and is carried out by high-standard PTAs, and the other is relation-based and is exemplified by “the Belt and Road” Initiative proposed by China. While peripheral reform fragments international law, various methods of multilateralizing regionalism are suggested, such as the incorporation of the third-party most-favoured-nation clause, the simplification of the rules of origin, and the construction of multilateral agreements through the ‘building blocs’ of PTAs. Most of these reforms make achievements to some extent, although they also have deficiencies.

The article first introduces key education policies in China, revolving around the National Medium- and Long-Term Education Reform and Development Guideline (2010-2020), a blueprint for education reform up to 2020. Then it elaborates on the educational issues and challenges confronted by China. The article examines the lessons and gaps in educational cooperation in the APEC in light of international cooperation which is regarded as an important approach to seeking inspiration for policymaking in the process of education reform. Finally it concludes with a number of recommendations for international cooperation in the context of enhancing "regional economic integration ".