In recent years, in ESL pedagogy, the research on identifying simple and complex grammatical structures and vocabulary has been motivated by the goal of helping learners to improve the quality and sophistication of their second language (L2)production and writing. In academic writing, various L2 skills and language features have different degrees of importance. The purpose of this paper is to highlight research findings for teaching grammar essential for producing L2 formal and academic prose. Specifically, the paper focuses on specific grammar constructions and their attendant lexical elements that are critical in teaching L2 academic writing. These requisite components of academic grammar skills are mandatory for students who aspire to success in their university work. In addition, the paper also briefly outlines the grammatical and lexical features of academic text that are customarily taught in ESL classes but that may be relatively unimportant.

Spasticity has been defined as a motor disorder characterised by a velocity-dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes with exaggerated tendon jerks resulting in hyperexcitability of the stretch reflexes as one component of the upper motor neuron syndrome. Weakness and loss of dexterity, however, are considered to be more disabling to the patient than changes in muscle tone. The discussion includes the important role that alterations in the physiology of motor units, notably changes in firing rates and muscle fiber atrophy, play in the manifestation of muscle weakness. This paper considers both the neural and mechanical components of spasticity and discusses, in terms of clinical intervention, the implications arising from recent research. Investigations suggest that the resistance to passive movement in individuals with spasticity is due not only to neural mechanisms but also to changes in mechanical properties of muscle. The emphasis is on training the individual to gain control over the muscles required for different tasks, and on preventing secondary and adaptive soft tissue changes and ineffective adaptive motor behaviours.