This study aims to show that cultural differences in self-concepts define the effect of brand evaluations on purchase intention. Self-brand connection (SBC), which refers to “the extent to which individuals have incorporated brands into their self-concepts (Escalas & Bettman, 2003)”, has been identified as an important factor that leads brand loyalty and repurchase (Batra et al., 2012; Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006; Loureiro et al., 2012; Park et al., 2010; Zarantonello et al., 2016). However, Sugitani (2018) demonstrated that SBC was a significant predictor of repurchase intention only among people with independent self-construal (Westerners), while brand evaluations based on public reputation (i.e. public-based evaluation; PBE) significantly predicted repurchase intention among people with interdependent self-construal (East Asians). This study raises questions about other factors relevant to the self that might moderate the effect of brand evaluations. Therefore, in addition to self-construal, this study focused on individual selfesteem as another moderating factor, and investigated its effects on the relations between brand evaluations and purchase intentions. Cross-national online surveys were conducted in the U.S., Italy (independent selfconstrual culture) and Japan (interdependent self-construal culture). The results of data analyses using multi-group structural equation modelling and ANOVAs provided the important discoveries. First, the finding of previous literature was reproduced that SBC was a significant predictor of repurchase intentions among people with independent selfconstrual. However, self-esteem significantly moderated the result. Specifically, SBC was a significant antecedent of repurchase intention when consumers with interdependent self-construal possess high self-esteem. Second, self-esteem also moderated the effect of PBE on repurchase intention among Italian consumers. Italians with low self-esteem were averse to choosing high PBE brands, while those with high self-esteem were not. The U.S. and Japanese consumers consistently avoided and preferred high PBE brands respectively; self-esteem did not affect the result. This study contributes to global brand management by showing that cultural differences in two important self-concepts, self-construal and self-esteem, have an interactive moderating effect on brand evaluations and purchases.

The aim of this exploratory research is to investigate whether luxury brands social media activities (Kim & Ko, 2012) – which are online activities that could potentially engage customers in digital environment (Sashi, 2012) – are capable of transmitting the sense of heritage of such brands to the customers. Moreover, the authors will observe whether the aforementioned activities are capable of transmitting the sense of exclusivity, which will be measured through the customers’ perceptions of the brand prestige (Hwang & Hyun, 2012), to the latter. In order to explore such a phenomenon, the authors have selected structural eqation modeling (SEM) as the main methodology of the research (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). The theoretical foundations of the present research are related with three streams of marketing literature, namely (1) luxury brands social media marketing activities (Kim & Ko, 2010; Kim & Ko, 2012), (2) luxury brands heritage (Ciappei, Zollo, Boccardi, & Rialti, 2016; Hudson, 2011; Rialti, Zollo, Boccardi, & Marzi, 2016) and, finally, (3) luxury brands customer-based prestige (Napoli, Dickinson, Beverland, & Farrelly, 2014). In particular, building on the concept of social media marketing activities (Kim & Ko, 2010), we aimed at observing how the latter could influence customers’ perceptions of the brand by engaging them in online activities and conversations (Sashi, 2012; Zaglia, 2013). Specifically, we investigated if engagement in online activities or in online communities is related with a positive perception of luxury brands’ heritage and prestige. Hence, customers’ online engagement deriving from social media activities has been considered as an antecedent of customer perceived heritage and prestige (Phan, Thomas, & Heine, 2011; Hamzah, Alwi, & Othman, 2014; Riviezzo Garofano, & Napolitano, 2016). Luxury brands have been selected as the context of research since heritage and prestige have emerged as relevant strategic marketing levers for luxury brands’ brand strategist. As a proof of that, recently, luxury brands’ strategist and product managers are increasingly focusing brands’ strategies on the history of the brands in order to transmit customers a feeling of exclusivity and elitism (Hudson, 2010; Balmer, 2011). Thus, luxury brands heritage perceived by costumers emerged as a fundamental component of brand identity and, in addition, it may be considered as a form of competitive advantage increasing brand equity (Van Riel & Balmer, 1997). The main findings of the present research are related with the fact that social media marketing activities may engage customers online (Sashi, 2012). Moreover, it emerged how social media strategies are capable to engage customers and transmit them the sense of heritage and prestige. Hence, social media marketing strategies focused on developing a relationship with customers emerged as crucial in order to enhance customers’ perceptions of a brand heritage and prestige. Finally, the development of such a kind of social media marketing strategies is the principal implication for marketing managers. Due to the aforementioned results, this exploratory research contributes to online luxury brand management literature (Kim & Ko, 2010). In particular, due to our results it is possible to assess that social media activities, which are capable to engage customers online, are able to transmit the sense of heritage and of prestige. Future researches should explore better this phenomenon. In particular, on the one hand we suggest scholars to investigate through qualitative methodologies which kind of communications are capable to transmit sense of heritage and prestige. On the other hand, we suggest scholars to compare traditional form of communications with online form in order to understand which one is more capable to influence customers’ perceptions. The principal limitation of this research is related with its exploratory nature and with the traditional limitations of SEM methodology.

What kind of reasons or bases could lead to strong and positive brand attitudes? This study aims to identify the factors that have strong relationships with positive brand attitudes and to test whether the findings can be generalized and applied across cultural contexts. Historically, attitude research has assumed that attitudes are based on cognition (i.e. beliefs) and affect (Bodur, Brinberg, & Coupey, 2000; Crano & Prislin, 2006). This study suggests a new schema comprised of ‘self-based’ and ‘public-based’ evaluations as the foundation of brand attitudes. ‘Self-based’ evaluations refer to brand evaluations based on consumers’ personal judgments and feelings. These evaluations mainly derive from consumers’ experiences with products. In contrast, ‘public-based’ evaluations are influenced by others’ opinions and brands’ public reputations. Consumers are frequently exposed to word-of-mouth messages about brands and related products, and they can assess them even when they have not personally used the product. Based on previous brand management literature, two hypotheses below were developed. Hypothesis 1: Self-based evaluations predict positive brand attitudes, but public-based evaluations do not predict positive brand attitudes. Hypothesis 2: Self-based evaluations predict the purchase intentions of consumers with independent self-construal, but public-based evaluations predict the purchase intentions of consumers with interdependent self-construal. The data were collected in a Western and an East Asian country and analysed for authenticity as well as by country, which should be important to global brand building. The results supported the hypotheses and this study made three important discoveries. First, it demonstrated that self-based evaluation was a broadly important factor to building positive brand attitudes. Second, public-based evaluation was marginally effective for branding and is important only in the East Asian context. Third, it was found that authenticity had ‘double-edged’ effects on branding. Finally, the contributions and implications of this study were discussed.

This study examined differences in brand attitude bases between Japanese and Americans. ‘Pride’ was a universal predictor of brand attitudes among both Japanese and American participants. However, Japanese consumers strongly emphasized ‘emotional attachment’, whereas Americans’ brand attitudes mostly derived from product functionality. The reason was discussed in light of Cultural-psychology.