최근 남아시아 무슬림 선교는 힌두교 근본주의자들이 주도하는 적대적 정치적 압력을 통해 큰 위기를 맞게 되었다. 이러한 종교, 정치적 갈등 속에서 한국 선교사들 역시 비자발적 철수라는 어려움이 한층 가중되고 있어 이에 대한 선교 방안을 모색하는 것이 무엇보다 중요한 시기다. 본 연구는 이 같은 인도아대륙의 종교 지형, 즉 힌두교와 이슬람교의 역사적 전개 과정에서 형성된 인도 이슬람교의 독특한 특징과 인도 이슬람교와 기독교 선교의 주요 관계를 함께 살펴봄으로써 인도 무슬림 선교 신학적 의미를 발견해 보는 것이다. 특히 1947년 이전까지 인도아대륙의 이슬람교, 즉 파키스탄과 방글라데시가 인도와 하나였던 이슬람의 특징을 살펴봄으로써 중동 이슬람과 다른 선교적 접근 방안을 제시해 보는 것이다. 인도아대륙의 무슬림 선교는 무엇보다 타종교에 대한 존중과 이해로 출발해야 하며, 토착화된 수피즘과 무슬림 카스트에 대한 바른 이해, 복음의 비판적 상황화, 복음 전도와 사회 책임의 통전적 선교, 주요 종교 간의 평화로운 공존을 위한 대화와 성육신적 복음 변증이 요청된다.

India had been opened to Protestant missionary activity by a decree of the British Parliament in 1813. In 1832/1833, non-British missionary agencies were allowed to enter and launch their mission work in British India. The Protestant (mostly British) missionaries were very eager to preach the gospel message and disseminate gospel tracts on the market place. Inevitably, missionaries had clashed with local Muslims. There arose a fear that the beginning of Christian preaching and proselytizing activity in Agra was a threat to the center of Islam on the uneducated Muslims of the city and the surrounding region. Protestant missionary activity was a new phenomenon to the Muslims of north India. Encounters between Indian Muslims and Protestant missionaries in the years following British expansion into the old Mughal heartlands of north India brought about a mode of interaction and conflict between the two parties. This study examines the obstacles in reaching out to the Muslims with a special emphasis on the debate held in Agra, India on April 10-11, 1854. I will attempt to analyze the significance of this Muslim-Christian debate in India and its effects on future Muslim apologetical works. One of the missionaries, Karl Pfander, who was already experienced in Georgia, was circulating Persian and Urdu gospel tracts which criticize Islam and their prophet Muhammad. Kairânawî, together with some of the local Muslims, thought that it was the high time to challenge the aggressive mission activity. The Agra debates marked a turning point in Christian-Muslim apologetics, for it was the first time that Muslim theologians utilized European critical methods to disprove Christian doctrines. Why is the 1854 Agra debate of such significance? Although the Agra debates took place nearly 160 years ago, their impact is still felt today. Both disputants are still well remembered in the Muslim world and have influenced not only the form of modern apologetics, but the modern Muslim view of Christianity as well. Although the debates had been planned to address the topics of the deviation of the Bible, the Trinity, the Quran as the word of God, and the sending of the prophet Muhammad, the debate did not proceed further than the deviation of the Bible. The Islamic polemicists insisted that the Bible had been corrupted and tried to prove this with evidence taken out of the Bible itself and works from Christian authors who most fellow Christian would regard as skeptics or outright unbelievers. The timing of this counterattack was significant because Pfander, with a Pietist background, was either unfamiliar with or extremely hostile to the works of the aforementioned Biblical liberals. By utilizing such findings to undermine Pfander from within the Christian fold, the Muslims were able to declare an easy victory. Interestingly, the Muslims still employ such tactics today to attack Christian beliefs as they did 160 years ago. Therefore, missionaries who are working among Muslims should know the issues of the Agra debate and be prepared to answer the Muslims.

Christian population of Tamil Nadu and Kerala is between threefold and ten times higher than that of the rest of Indian states. A major reason is that these regions have become the epicenter of Bhakti movement roughly since 7 century AD. Hindu faith has been widely misconstrued by the outsiders or generalists as having impersonal multifarious Gods with no absolute dependence on God for their salvation. As it is partly true, it is also true that a majority Hindus believe personal monotheistic God with the salvation by faith. Dutch missionary scholar Johannes Bavinck, for example, pointed out that Bhakti concept of grace is totally different from that of Christian faith. The Bhakti faith is certainly different, and yet many common points can be located in the Bhakti literature which might be used as necessary contact points for missionary communication. According to soteriology of Southern school(Tengalais) of Bhakti faith, a kitten can be rescued only by yielding to its mother cat from the burning bushes just as Christians being saved only by the grace of God. Bhakti Gods are personal supreme Gods who demand their devotees an exclusive worship to themselves. Since the Bhakti Hindus found themselves as hopeless sinners, they repeat mantras and bathe into the holy rivers yearning for forgiveness. It is strikingly noteworthy in presenting Christian faith in relation to the indigenous faith and culture, although it is conflicting to Christian doctrines in many points. Korean reformed tradition is known to oppose the general revelation in the indigenous faith and culture. Yet what conflicts is not the reformed tradition, but the fundamentalist position in a strict sense. Although Bavinck supports the unique revelation in Christ, he does not necessarily deny the partial light or incomplete knowledge of God in non-Christian worlds as was given by God. Chai Eunsoo also acknowledges that Egyptian gold is also gold. Therefore, it should admit the function of common points between Bhakti faith and Christian faith as necessary starting points and ideas to present Christian gospel message to Bhakti Hindus, although differences should be carefully examined by specialists.

Thirty years have passed since the first Korean missionary Youngja Kim had arrived in India in 1980. Korean missionaries have filled up the vacancy of Western missionaries after they had gone home. They have done excellent job particularly in the field of church planting where the Western missionaries found it hard. Unfortunately, however, Korean missionaries have worked tirelessly without having any chance to get feedback from Indian natives and churches. This article shows the present situation and some problems of Korean missions. Its aim is to evaluate Korean missions in India by the reflection on Indian culture and Indian critic of foreign missions carried out in India. Korean missionaries have worked mainly among so-called the scheduled caste people and the scheduled tribe, namely the lowest strata of Indian society. The religion of S. C. and the S. T. is Buddhism, Sikhism, Animism and Totemism unlike the mainline Hinduism. The Korean missionaries' work is mostly focused on church planting, along with teaching ministry in seminaries and schools, and social service. Indian Christians examined themselves and confessed that 90% of their evangelistic efforts are carried out among about 4% Christians of their country. They proposed that their focused missionary efforts should be made among the main line caste Hindus who have not heard the Gospel. Secondly, Indian Christian leaders like R. C. Das demanded that foreign financial assistance should be stopped right now unless western missionaries would ruin the native initiative and the spirit of self-reliance which is essential to the fulfillment of Indian evangelism. Thirdly, they suggested that church building is culturally irrelevant in India where spirituality is raised by parents and elders rather than by the appointed paid Christian workers. Based on these criticism, Korean missionaries have to shift the traditional paradigm of missions in India as following. First, Korean missionaries should strike a balance by focusing on missions among the higher caste Hindus or middle class people in cities. Second, Korean missionaries should stop the financial assistance to the Indian workers and churches, and rather plant the independent spirit and the gospel faith.

In the end of August 2008, atrocities against Christians of Khandamal district of Orissa state in India occurred by Hindu mobs driven by Bajrang Dal, the youth wing of Hindu World Council: 59 people were killed, 18,000 were injured and 159 churches were damaged, along with 4,400 houses. Apparently, this communal violence was erupted from the antipathy of Hindu nationalists towards conversion movement of Christian missionaries. Yet, inwardly, the poor Khands tribe felt jealous of rich Panas tribe after being converted to Christianity. The Bajrang Dal attempted to take advantage of such communal tension for the political purpose of taking seats in the upcoming 2009 general election. Communal violence happens dime a dozen in India. Yet, recently, the target of Hindu nationalists was directed to Christians in the tribal areas of Orissa rather than to Muslims, previously the major enemy of Hindus. The reason was the steep increase of Christians in this district due to missionary activities. The leaders of Hindu nationalists were in the grip of fear and vented their anger over this issue. According to the ideology of Hindutva(Hinduness), Indian nation has to be necessarily a Hindu nation and the Hindus alone are the true sons of the soil. Moreover, the non-Hindus are a menace, the polluted to be purged, if they would not be assimilated to Hindu way of life. The feature of nationalism of K. Hedgewar of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh was cultural nationalism which elevated India to the goddess of motherland. From the perspective of Hindutva, the conversion of Hindus to non-Hindu religion is an anti-national activity, thus, they should put it down by all possible means. Likewise, the communal ideology of the Hindu nationalism is exclusive, chronical, and subjected to violence. In this regional context, Christian missionaries should respect Hindu gods and goddesses and understand their faith and Hindu nationalism rather than villify them. In order to avoid unnecessary clash, it is recommendable for Christians to involve in inter-personal evangelism and establishing house churches rather than in building churches and institutions. Missionaries should encourage the local Christians to be financially independent so that Christianity can be presented as a genuine spiritual religion. Urban middle class Hindus should be the target of missionaries, moving from the previous lower strata of Hindu society.

This essay is to explore the life and work of Dr. John Scudder (1793-1855), a missionary to Ceylon and to discuss his theological place in the history of missions. He studied at Princeton College and then at College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. As a successful physician, he realized God’s calling to missionary work abroad while he was reading a religious tract in a patient’s home. Together with his wife, Harriet Scudder, and three other missionaries, Dr. Scudder sailed to Ceylon, today’s Sri Lanka, where he worked thirty six years for mission. His primary choice was India, but the East India Company opposed any missionary work in their ruling territories. That was why he had to the northern part of Ceylon where he was free to preach, teach, and treat. Dr. Scudder was the first medical missionary sent by American Church to foreign countries. He was also a forerunner of the medical mission and the most distinguished model for later medical missionaries. He launched a ministry of intensive evangelism by establishing hospitals and schools. He trained natives to become medical doctors. He also founded several churches after he became a ordained pastor in Ceylon. Dr. Scudder made religious small tracts about biblical stories which were written in Tamil to distribute to numerous people. He had to suffer and overcome countless obstacles and hardships against his missionary work. Ecological diseases, famines, economic burdens, family matters, natural disasters, persecutions from other religious groups, and other troubles could not hinder his ministry. He even suffered the losses of his two daughters in the missionary fields. Nevertheless, his mission was very successful and his wife, Harriet, was also wonderful partner to this missionary work. In 1836, he moved to Madras, India in order to supervise young missionaries. During his later days, he visited many missionary posts in South Asia and Africa in order to share his missionary experiences. His last visiting place was the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, where he went into eternal peace in 1855. Later generations of numerous missionaries were impressed and influenced by his deeds and words. While visiting North America, more than one hundred thousand young people heard his lectures and sermons about mission and foreign cultures. Influenced by Scudder's mission, James Taylor made a resolution to become missionary to American outcasts and westerners. David Coit Scudder also became a missionary after having been impressed by Dr. John Scudder's Mission. Furthermore, his heritage includes forty two missionary descendants, whose years of ministry service in mission fields are close to almost one thousand. One of the most famous medical missionaries out of his descendants was Dr. Ida Scudder who also worked in India.