The large copper butterfly Lycaena dispar (Haworth, 1803; Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) has been categorized as a near-threatened species (NT) in South Korea from 2012 mainly due to limited distribution. In this study, we visited 36 sites spread across all South Korean provinces to verify the distributional range of the species and sequenced mitochondrial COI for 53 individuals from nine sites. We observed L. dispar at 15 sites in six provinces, including the two previously known provinces, indicating a southward range expansion. The in-field monitoring and genetic data collectively suggested that L. dispar does not have a limited distribution nor is it isolated, indicating that it should be reclassified as less vulnerable. Our study demonstrates that the combination of field and genetic data can provide a more reliable assessment of the stability of a species.

Hindwings of many lycaenid butterflies have a unique tail-like wing structure referred to as a false head, which actually mimics the antennae. False heads increase butterfly survival by directing predatory attacks towards the false heads thereby enhancing the chance of escape. In this study, using discrete character evolution models of European and American butterflies, we examined the co-evolutionary patterns between false head structures and two associated traits: a highly contrasting color patch neighboring the false head, and hindwing rubbing behaviors. The former is considered a eye-mimicking structure that enhances the effectiveness of false head, and latter generates the movement of false heads which likely increases the success of false head deception. Our findings demonstrate that false heads are ancestral states for both European and American lycaenids. Both contrasting colors and hindwing rubbing behaviors follow correlated evolution models, suggesting that these traits co-evolved in lycanid butterflies. However, specific evolutionray patterns differed between the two continents.

The lycanid butterfly, Shijimiaeoides divina (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) is listed as the second-degree endangered wild animal in Korea from 2012. The 15,259-bp long complete mitochondrial genome of the species consisted of a typical set of genes (13 protein-coding genes, two rRNA genes and 22 tRNA genes) and one major non-coding A+T-rich region, with the typical arrangement found in majority of Lepidoptera. The 15,259-bp long S. divina mitogenome is well within the range found in Lycaenidae and has typical sets of 37 genes and a major non-coding A+T-rich region as 379 bp. As other lycanid butterflies S. divina COI also started with CGA. The gene arrangement of S. divina is identical to that of the Ditrysia in Lepidoptera that has the order trnM-trnI-trnQ (underline for inverted gene) between the A+T-rich region and ND2. Comparison of the skewness between the PCGs encoded in major and minor strand indicates a substantial difference between them in GC skewness (0.261 ~ 0.340 in minor strand vs. -0.081 ~ -0.115 in major strand). The 151-bp intergenic spacer sequence of the S. divina mitogenome is spread over 16 regions ranging in size from 1-53 bp. The longest one (53 bp) located between trnQ and ND2 shows substantially high sequence homology to neighboring ND2 may indicating the origination of the region by a partial duplication of the ND2 gene. One of the unusual features of the S. divina mitogenome is the presence of a trnK-like sequence that is encoded at the major strand of the genome in the A+T-rich region.

Two complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of the endangered, lycaenid butterflies, Spindasis takanonis and Protantigius superans (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), were sequenced. Each 15,349 bp and 15,248 bp-long genome contained both the lepidopteran specific gene arrangement that differ from the most common arrangement of insects by the movement of tRNAMet to a position 5’-upstream of tRNAIle. Neither of the species have typical COI start codon. Instead, the CGA (arginine) sequence that is commonly present in all other lepidopterans was also found in both lycaenids. The possible binding site for the transcription termination peptide, TACTA sequence, also was well retained in both species. The high A+T-content, which is a characteristic of insect mitogenomes was well reflected in the genomes in the form of higher frequency of codons with A/T nucleotides, severe A/T bias in 3rd codon position, and extremely high A/T content in the A+T-rich region. The 19 bp-long poly-T stretch and the downstream conserved motif ATAG, which were suggested previously to function as a structural signal for minor-strand mtDNA replication, was also well conserved in the A+T-rich region of both lycaenids. Phylogenetic analysis among lepidopteran superfamilies supported the relationships of either (((((Bombycoidea + Geometroidea) + Noctuoidea) + Papilionoidea) + Pyraloidea) + Tortricoidea) by concatenated amino acid sequence or (((((Bombycoidea + Geometroidea) + Noctuoidea) + Pyraloidea) + Papilionoidea) + Tortricoidea) by concatenated nucleotide sequences of 1st and 2nd codon positions of 13 protein-coding genes, two rRNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes, revealing fluctuating positions of Papilionoidea and Pyraloidea between the two data sets.

In order to establish a year round indoor-rearing system for Copper butterflies; large copper butterfly, Lycaena dispar, the effect of temperature on larval development and diapause was investigated. Temperature has been suggested as an important factor regulating the developmental rate, length of life, and survival rate from insect. As temperature increased, the developmental period was gradually shorten. The developmental periods of large copper larvae had a range of 11.0 days to 28.5 days at 30℃ and 17.5℃ respectively. The highest emergence rate was 94.2% recorded at 20℃. And the low emergence rate was 72.7% under 17.5℃. We investgated the sensitive stages to diapause induction in the larger copper effect of temperature and photoperiod. The experiment involves transfer of individuals from diapause averting (LD 16:8h, 25℃) to diapause inducing condition (LD 8:16h, 20℃) at various stages. Diapause was induced in 95.2% insect transferred at hatching larvae, in 15.6% of insects transferred at 2nd stadium molt, in 0% of insects transferred at after 3rd stadium molt. Percentage diapause induction increase with the length of short days and low temperature experienced. The main stage sensitive to photoperiod and temperature induction of diapause determination is the early first larval instar. The diapause induction began 14 days and ended 20 days after hatching larvae (LD 8:16h, 20℃).

한국산 부전나비과 40종 2,850여 개체를 재료로 광학현미경으로 발향린의 유무 및 분포를 확인하였다. 이중 발향린이 확인, 관찰된 8종을 대상으로 주사전자현미경을 이용하여 미세구조를 비교하였다. 발향린이 관찰된 종은 Pseudozizera maha(K.), Celasrtina argiolus(L.), Everes argiades (P.), Lycaeides argyronmon(B.), Zizina otis(F.), Maculinea arionides(S.), M. teleius(B.), Niphanda fusca(B. et G.)등 8종이었다. 암컷에서는 발향린이 관찰되지 않았고 수컷에서만 확인되었으며, 앞날개의 표면과 이면, 그리고 뒷날개의 표면에서 관찰되었다. 발향린은 주로 중맥, 주맥, 둔맥에 분포하였으며 종별로 형태적 차이를 보였다. 확인, 관찰된 8종의 발향린은 잎새, 자루병반만을 가지는 단순한 모양을 나타내었다. Niphanda fusca는 잎새모양과 자루병반의 위치 등 많은 차이점이 확인되었으며, Pseudozizeera maha, Everes argiades등 2종에서는 두가지 형태의 발향린이 관찰되었다. 본 연구에서는 관찰된 8종은 모두 Polymmatina아과에 속하였다. 이중 Niphanda fusca는 Niphandini족에 속하며 나머지는 Polymmatini족에 속하였다.