점박이응애(Tetranychus urticae)는 250과 1400여종의 식물에 피해를 주고 있는 해충으로 높은 번식력, 근친 교배, 무성생식, 짧은 수명주기 로 년간 발생회수가 많기 때문에 약제에 대한 저항성이 빠르게 발달하는 종이다. 저항성 기작은 AChE 저해, sodium channel modulator, glutamate gated chloride channels allosteric, mite growth inhibitors, inhibitors of acetyl CoA carboxylase, mitochondrial ATP synthase 저 해, mitochondrial complex I, II, III, 그리고 electron transport 저해 등이 있으며 약제에 따라 작용기작이 다르므로 약제살포 시 확인이 필요하 다. 약제저항성 발달을 평가하는 독성시험방법으로 slide dip, leaf dip, leaf disc, topical application, vial leaf dip, spray potter tower, leaf vial dipping 등이 있으며 최근에는 분자학적 진단법 등도 개발되어 있으나 이들 방법은 해충 종이나 발육상태에 약제에 따라 정확도가 달라지므로 현장 에 가장 맞는 방법을 찾아야 할 것이다. 저항성 점박이응애를 효과적으로 관리하기 위한 방법으로 저항성 위험이 낮은 살응애제(chemical acaricide) 약제 선발, 천적인 칠레이리응애, 사막이리응애를 이용한 생물적 방제, 님, 제충국, 등 식물추출물이나 정유를 활용한 친환경적인 방법 등이 제시되 고 있으며 종합관리를 위한 다양한 요인을 찾아 약제 사용을 줄여 나가야 할 것이다.

동일 계열 약제의 연용과 살포 횟수 증가는 저항성 해충군 출현 시기를 촉진시켜 방제 효과를 감소시킨다. 현재까지 저항성 발달이 보고된 국내 해충은 애멸구, 점박이응애 그리고 빨간집모기등을 포함하여 약 20종이다. 저항성 진단은 주로 생물검정법, 생화학적 검정법, 분자생물학적 검정법 등으로 구분되며, 저항성 발달 기작 연구를 통해 다양한 진단기법들이 개발되고 있다. 해충의 저항성 발달 수준 정보는 우수한 약제 선발을 가능하게 하며, 친환경방제제 및 천적 활용과 연계되어 저항성 해충군 발달 속도를 저하시키고 살충제 가용 수명을 늘리는데 기여할 수 있다.

There has been an accelerating increase in water reuse due to growing world population, rapid urbanization, and increasing scarcity of water resources. However, it is well recognized that water reuse practice is associated with many human health and ecological risks due to numerous chemicals and pathogenic microorganisms. Especially, the potential transmission of infectious disease by hundreds of pathogenic viruses in wastewater is one of the most serious human health risks associated with water reuse. In this study, we determined the response of different bacteriophages representing various bacteriophage groups to chlorination in real wastewater in order to identify a more reliable bacteriophage indicator system for chlorination in wastewater. Different bacteriophages were spiked into secondary effluents from wastewater plants from three different geographic areas, and then subjected to various doses of free chlorine and contact time at 5˚C in a bench-scale batch disinfection system. The inactivation of φX174 was relatively rapid and reached ∼4 log10 with a CT value of 5 mg/L*min. On the other hand, the inactivation of bacteriophage PRD1 and MS2 were much slower than the one for φX174 and only ~1 log10 inactivation was achieved by a CT value of 10 mg/L*min. Overall, the results of this study suggest that bacteriophage both MS2 and PRD1 could be a reliable indicator for human pathogenic viruses for chlorination in wastewater treatment processes and water reuse practice.

전세계적으로살충제에 대한 곤충의 저항성발현을 막을수 있는 단일방법은 없 다. 그 원인으로는 각 지역에서의 살충제, 작물 과 해충의 복잡다양한 상호관계에 의한 것으로 보아야 할것이다. 최근에 개발되고있는 환경 및 인축독성에 보다 안전하고 활성이 높은 살충제에 대하여 농민의 효과적인 방제를 위해서는 기본적으로 살충제저항성 관리원칙을 만들어 관리하여야 할 것으로 판단된다. 해충종합관리(IPM) 및 살충제저항성관리 (IRM)의 골격내에서 여러가지 방제수단 (화학적방제, 경종적방제,생물적방제등) 에 의하여 저항성발현을 최소화 시키는 노력이 필요하며 제품출시전후의 저항성 발현에 대한 Risk를 평가하고 저항성이 발현되기전에 관계기관, 학계, 관련업계, 판매상, 농민등의 적극적인 저항성관리를 위한 노력을 하여야 할 것으로 판단된다. 제품이 출시되면 잠재적인 저항성발현에 대한 질문에 직면하게 될것이다. 이러 한 리스크를 쉽게 예측하기는 어렵지만 그것은 상황에 따라 매우 다양하고 이는 여 러가지 특징들 때문에 좌우되어진다고 생각되어진다. 약제의 지효성, 기존에 사용된 약제와의 연관성, 작용기작, 교차저항성등이 관 련되며 일반적으로 잔효력이 긴 약제는 잔효력이 짧은 약제보다 저항성이 발현될 가능성이 높고 또한 혼합제 선택시에도 각단제의 추천약량 및 잔효력이 고려되야 함은 물론이다. 그리고 각약제의 추천약량, 시즌중사용횟수, 처리된면적, 처리시 기등을 판단하여 적절한 방제를 할수 있도록 하여야한다. 해충의 생식율, 해충의 운동성, 먹이의 다양성, 해충의 크기 및 서식범위, 개체내 저항성인자의 분포범위, 유전적요인등도 해당되고 또한 년간 세대수가 많은 해충은 저항성의 발현이 다른 해충들에 비하여 빠르게 나타난다는 것이 사실이다. 이러한 기술적인 사실을 바탕으로 국내에서의 최근 개발된 Diamide계통약제에 의한 나방류의 저항성관리의 원칙을 제시하고자한다.

An attempt was made to stimulate future research by providing exemplary information, which would integrate published knowledge to solve specific pest problem caused by resistance. This review was directed to find a way for delaying resistance development with consideration of chemical(s) nature, of mixture, rotation, or mosaics, and of insecticide(s) compatible with the biological agents in integrated pest management (IPM). The application frequency, related to the resistance development, was influenced by insecticide activity from potentiation, residual period, and the vulnerability to resistance development of chemical, with secondary pest. Chemical affected feeding, locomotion, flight, mating, and predator avoidance. Insecticides with negative cross-resistance by the difference of target sites and mode of action would be adapted to mixture, rotation and mosaic. Mixtures for delaying resistance depend on each component killing very high percentage of the insects, considering allele dominance, cross-resistance, and immigration and fitness disadvantage. Potential disadvantages associated with mixtures include disruption of biological control, resistance in secondary pests, selecting very resistant population, and extending cross-resistance range. The rotation would use insecticides in high and low doses, or with different metabolic mechanisms. Mosaic apply insecticides to the different sectors of a grid for highly mobile insects, spray unrelated insecticides to sedentary aphids in different areas, or mix plots of insecticide-treated and untreated rows. On the evolution of pest resistance, selectivity and resistance of parasitoids and predator decreased the number of generations in which pesticide treatment is required and they could be complementary to refuges from pesticides To enhance the viability of parasitoids, the terms on the insecticides selectivity and factors affecting to the selectivity in field were examined. For establishment of resistant parasitoid, migration, survivorship, refuge, alternative pesticides were considered. To use parasitoids under the pressure of pesticides, resistant or tolerant parasitoids were tested, collected, and/or selected. A parasitoid parasitized more successfully in the susceptible host than the resistant. Factors affecting to selective toxicity of predator are mixing mineral oil, application method, insecticide contaminated prey, trait of individual insecticide, sub-lethal doses, and the developmental stage of predators. To improve the predator/prey ratio in field, application time, method, and formulation of pesticide, reducing dose rate, using mulches and weeds, multicropping and managing of surroundings are suggested. Plant resistance, predator activity, selective insect growth regulator, and alternative prey positively contributed to the increase of the ratio. Using selective insecticides or insecticide resistant predator controlled its phytophagous prey mites, kept them below an economic level, increased yield, and reduced the spray number and fruits damaged.

Resistance evolution to organophosphate-based pesticides in apple and pear inhabiting arthropods of western North America extends to many classes of pest and some beneficial species. Resistance management programs to minimize resistance in pests while exploiting it in natural enemies have met with mixed success. Among beneficials, resistances have been exploited mostly among predators of pest mites. Evolution of resistant mites, leafminers, leafhopper, aphids, leafrollers and some internal fruit feeders have led to development of new monitoring methods and means to delay or avoid resistance. But it is resistance to azinphosmethyl in codling moth (Cydia pomonella) that is changing the pest control system and moving it from chemical to biologically-based means. Newly merging IPM system will depend more on use of biological, cultural, behavior and genetic controls. But more selective pesticides also will be needed to augment pheromones, resistant host plants and genetically altered organisms. These more biologically-based tactics will be prone to resistance evolution in pests as well, if used too unilaterally and/or too extensively.