이 글은 시적 창조와 재현(representation)의 문제와 관련하여 예이츠 詩에 나타난 죽음과 不在의 문제를 다룬다. 우선 부재와 죽음이 어떻게 시적 상상력의 조건이 될 수 있는 가를 살피고 다음으로 죽음이 경험적이 것이 될 수 없으며 재현 불가능하다는 것을 논하다. 재현 불가능한 죽음은 언제나 이름이나 은유로만 남아있게 되며 그 의미 또한 결정할 수 없게된다. 죽음의 이런 특성에 착안하여 이 글은 예이츠의 “A Dream of Death,” “Man and the Echo,” “Song of the Wandering Aengus,” “Sorrow of Love”를 다룬다. “A Dream of Death”에서는 시의 화자가 꿈속에서 연인의 죽음을 상상하고 언어적인 것으로 치환하여 그녀의 아름다움을 고정하고 한계 짖고 결정하여 오직 자신만의 것으로 만들려 의도하는데, 이런 의도가 어떻게 언어 자체가 갖고 있는 비결정성의 특정 때문에 좌절되는 가를 논한다. “Man and Echo”에서는 죽음이라는 것이 재현불가능하며 항상 미래의 가능성으로만 남아있는 점을 분석한다. “Song of the Wandering Aengus”는 사라진 연인을 은유적 치환으로 재현함으로써 생기는 있음과 없음 사이의 갈등을 보여준다. “Sorrow of Love”는 처음에 출판한 시가 나중에 다시 쓴 최종판에서 어떻게 흔적으로 남아 의미의 고정을 방해하는 가를 분석한다.

This study proposes to venture into the common elements and differences in both W.B. Yeats’s and Derek Walcott’s poems. It has been said that the young Walcott was sympathetic to the Irish writers, such as Synge, Pearce, Yeats, and Joyce, because he intended to make himself master of the themes and rhythms of the exile or castaway that the Irish writers echoed in their works. Of the Irish writers, Yeats was especially a poet who a little more previously wrote of the same issue as the young Walcott tried to and the young poet’s attention was deeply caught in the Yeatean poetics, more specifically, in the Yeatean mask which echoes a solitary self as an artist. Walcott’s Crusoe as a poetic self echoes the Yeatean mask. More specifically, it is a parallel for a poet with his daily ritual of the poet creating a new poem in the desperately isolated island. It is believed to be created by Walcott’s comparing himself and his own country to Yeats and Ireland in terms of an exile, a castaway or a lost self, which reflects a solitary and artistic figure in his poems, such as in “Crusoe’s Island” and “As John To Patmos”. Despite this fact, Walcott is also a poet who has built up the self-figure on a different base from Yeats’s heroic or aristocratic self. His poems are based on the Caribbean multi-racial background characteristic of slavery, poverty, lost hope, and lost identity that have resulted from the colonial policy of the British government that stepped into the Spanish and the French shoes. His Caribbean figure is a poverty-stricken, obedient, but patient, willful castaway, with his thick lips tightly closed. Although Walcott is a poet who has developed his own poetic self on the Yeatean base, which resulted in his fruitful poems, it is believed that he made greater efforts to weave the Caribbean spirit into poems than others. Then, the Caribbean tropical landscapes, such as sea, wood, and sun, etc. are a poetic space which sublimated his themes into the Caribbean soul.

This paper is to get away from contemporary literary criticism and discourse concerning Yeats and Eliot. This is not to ignore the features of contemporary culture which are changing rapidly, including modernism to postmodernism. Yet, I want to focus on the poem itself. With the poems of both poets dealing with the same topic coincidently, I concentrate on the different aspects of modern poetry and importance of style from the two poets. Also, I believe that such aspects and difference in style will dedicate to understanding contemporary culture from their different points of view of the world and religion. This view helps us to understand today’s cultural facets from which we can experience a variety of lifestyles. Especially, religious points of view by the two poets help us see the relations of religion with today’s culture, the religion which might not be considered serious today in a general sense. The poem, “The Magi,” is thus delivered in this paper to see such religious significance as suggested from various literary symbols they are using in their poetry. Eliot tries to find the way in which ultimate happiness of human beings comes from the life in religious dimension; whileas Yeats wants to possess a complete life on a different level, that is the world of poetry. Such visions are well suggested in the poem, “The Magi.” Eliot discovers a Christian life from which people can experience a new vision in today’s difficult times. Yet, Yeats explores a new life in arts. The former is dreaming of a Christian kingdom while the latter is dreaming of a visionary kingdom. These differences command the style and form of the two poets. In this respect, Yeats gets over Eliot’s prejudice on him. So, the two poets should not be evaluated on the basis of time. They should be taken into account from a variety of perspectives, not from any fixed ones, with the different values they are suggesting beyond time and place.

이 논문은 Yeats의 두편의 초기시를 분석한다. Yeats는 학자들 사이에 잘 알려져 있듯이, 자신의 시에 끊임없이 수정을 가하였다. 대부분의 학자들은 마지막에 Yeats 자신이 수정하고 배열하여 간행한 The Collected Poems를 “final”한 것으로 간주하며, 당연히 여기에 실린 시가 초기의 것 보다 우수 한 것으로 간주하는 경우가 많다. Richard Ellmann의 분석도 예외가 아니었다. “The Ballad of Moll Magee"는, 그에 의하면, 열등한 시이나, 본 논문에서 분석한 바로는 그의 주장이 옳지 못함을 보여준다. 특히, “The Ballad of Father Gilligan”에서 Yeats가 들춰내려고 한 종교의 가식을 풀어낸다. 이 시는 Yeats에게서는 좀처럼 보기 힘든, humor가 흥미롭게 담겨있다. Gilligan 신부는 신앙심이 무척 두터우면서도, 극히 인간적인 것으로 묘사된다. 임종을 지키는 신부의 일이 지나치게 많아지자 심신이 피곤해져, 자신도 모르게 불평하고, 다시 깜짝 놀라 하나님께 사죄한다. 이러한 Gilligan의 인간적 면모는 다시 한번 마지막 두 연의 기도에서 나타난다. 자의적으로 하나님의 뜻을 풀어 간 것에도 우리의 미소를 자아내게 한다. Gilligan이 자신도 모르게 빠져든 잠깐의 잠에서 놀라 눈을 뜨고 말을 달려, “새처럼 즐겁게”(as merry as a bird) 죽은 그 여인의 남편의 소식을 접하는 장면들의 묘사에서는 종교에 대한 Yeats의 풍자적 체취가 느껴지기까지 한다. 즉 앞 연들에서 보인 무의식적인 Gilligan의 인간적인 면모에 종교로 다듬어진 Gilligan의 의식을 대비시킴으로써 이러한 종교적 가식을 들춰 내려한 것이 Yeats의 의도였는지 모른다. 왜냐하면, 마지막 두 연에서 이 두 의식이 두 행씩으로 대비되어 있는 것을 미루어도 알 수 있는 사실이다. 결론적으로, 이 논문에서 다루어진 Yeats의 초기 시들은 일부 평론가들의 주장처럼 열등한 시가 아니다. 도리어 수정하지 않은 시들에서 보다 더 미묘한 시적 묘미가 더 살아 있는 것 같다.

Yeats presented the fallen majesty of Sophia who is a veiled goddess as in Valentinian of Christian Gnosticism, Cabalism and Rosicrucianism. In this respect, Yeats himself rejected the masculine Trinity and insisted on an androgynous Trinity throughout his works. Yeats’s view of Sophia is that of Attis for goddess Cybele. Yeats sought to reveal that Daughter-Sophia was a fallen Deity such as Helen of Troy or Cinderella and Sleeping Beauty of the fairy tale. Therefore one of Yeats’s major poetic themes is the longing for Sophia. From his early poems, Helen is symbolized as Sophia’s secular image and as one of the Yeats’s personal poetic heroines. Yeats wanted Helen, the cause of Troy’s fall, compared to Sophia who was the cause of the Christian’s fall for early Christian Gnostics. Also, several of Yeats’s poetic heroins can be approached in terms of Sophia’s secular and mournful beauty who is suffering with mankind in this world. Especially, Yeats as a master myth-maker himself recreated Helen as his personal unique mythic character in Sophia’s image. For Yeats, Maud Gonne’s poetic role was the embodiment of Ireland as Rose, Helen, Cathleen, Deirdre, Niamh and Jane. These figures are all symbolized as a divine Feminine Principle existing within the God, Masculine Principle before the all creation. And Yeats lays himself and the world at her feet as the love poet or her sole priest just as did Attis for Cybele. Yeats’s personal and poetic heros as symbols of Yeats’s portraits: Attis, Homer, Jester, Oisin, Red Hanrahan, Fergus, Cuchulain, and Aleel. Through Sophia’s imagery, Yeats suggested gnostic speculations about the female elements of divinity, rigorously suppressed by the orthodox Christian fathers of the early church, and this rejection remains to this day. In other words, Yeats tried to carry out a poetic recovery of one single body work of art from the veiled goddess, Sophia. Because Yeats wanted to become Sophia’s sole priest, Valentinian. His hope appears in his poetic theme of a ‘Unity of Being’ by uniting with Sophia after his own death and Sophia’s death too. In this sense, Yeats often illustrated in his poems sorrowful love and an eagerness for the death of the beloved. This idea and sentiment is seen in Aleel’s attempted unity with Cathleen: Aleel suggests Countess Cathleen who is suffering with her people go to Heaven to escape her pains. Although people mocked Yeats’s attitude regarding Sophia, he envisioned a heroic dream in which Sophia will be revealed with her Heavenly power in a future as her era comes. And at last, she will recover her genuine glory in Heaven. Sophia’s era will come 2000 years after Christ’s birth according to Yeats’s unique historical view. For example, “Leda and the Swan” and “A Nativity” symbolize the coming of the masculine Trinity era with in the Orthodox Church. So Yeats stated when the Christ or Helen or Christ’s sister (Daughter-Sophia) was born, the Mother of God, Mary or Leda was frightened and terror-struck. Therefore Helen symbolized secular beauty suffering with mankind during the 2000 years of the masculine Trinity age. On the other hand, in “The Second Coming,” Yeats suggested that Sophia’s veil be removed when she recovers her glory. The terrible Sphinx stands for this coming of Sophia, which will establish an androgynous Trinity just as seen in the Egyptian Trinity: Osiris, Isis and Horus. Sophia as Yeats’s beloved is also symbolized by the Sphinx, ‘half lion, half child’ in “Against Unworthy Praise.” Thus we see Yeats endeavoring to draw the readers’ attention to the stress laid by feminine principle, Helen-Sophia who is with mankind as Countess Cathleen -with sacrificial love and her suffering under the masculine Trinity- until the new age comes, which was stated as ‘until coming sphinx’ or ‘until God burn time.’ So Yeats was an authentic prophet in our time.

In my article titled “Nationalism of William B. Yeats and Seamus Heaney in their early poetry: mythic nationalism and realistic national consciousness” which was published in The Journal of English Language & Literature Vol. 45 No. 3, I analyzed three among four factors of nationalism (implicated) in the two poets’ early poetry, that is, ethnicity, language, territory. This article deals with one remaining factor of nationalism, religion, in their middle poetry. Religion is so powerful an influence in Ireland that Irish nationalism can be considered Irish Catholic Nationalism. The political, religious, and economic conflicts between Anglo-Irish Protestants and Catholic Irish made Ireland divided into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, after Ireland was liberated from British imperialism in 1922. The native Irish who had lost even their mother tongue, Gaelic during the colonial period of almost 800 years ruled by the British Empire sought their national identity in Catholicism and made the religious oppression of Britain their centripetal force. To Yeats, religion was not a dogmatic faith of institutionalized religion but a field in which his imagination of the supernatural is allowed full play to go beyond the ephemeral real world to the eternal spiritual world. He set the Irish religious identity on Irish countrymen’s native faith in faerie, ghost, eternity of soul, and the world of magic expressed in Irish legends, folklore, myths, and oral traditions. He satisfied his hunger for the ultimate truth of universe with the Irish ancient faith in the mystical world of the everlasting soul and the visionary as well as various kinds of mysticism in the East and the West. The mystical religious identity of the native Irish emphasized by him anticipated the continuous collisions among him, the Catholic pulpit and Irish nationalists. His romantic belief in a heroic spiritual Ireland materialized his Irish Literary Movement and his idealized Anglo-Irish Ascendancy culture was far from the political nationalism of the middle class of Ireland, the political class of the people democracy. Seamus Heaney has also suffered from the conflict between his cultural․ political ideals which are fundamentally Ireland-centered and the political reality of the violent IRA (Irish Republican Army) which kills even civilians at random for the cause of nationalism. To Heaney the religious faith was a recognition of the deep value of the religious ritual and the Catholic ritual has been internalized in his feminine poetic sensibility of patience, humility, duty, discipline, guiltiness, grace, wonder, and the ritual supplication. The Irish religious identity he put an emphasis on was not the visionary mystic one of Yeats but the real one which has been internalized in the minds of the native Catholic Irish as “self-afflicting compulsions” and spiritual paralysis, especially in terms of political martyrdom complex in IRA and historical defeatism of Catholic priests in Northern Ireland. Both Heaney and Yeats opposed violence of nationalism and sought their ideal one. Religion has had a devastating influence on the two tribal struggle in Ireland so that the two poets refused the established Christianity and tried to enhance Irish republican nationalism to the genuine nationalism allowing the peaceful co-existence of the two races living in Ireland. Heaney demythodized Yeats’s myth of the political martyrdom and denied the religious halo of Irish nationalism as well as the mythodized force in the history of the Northern Europe. His quest of democratic co-existence of plural culture in Ulster seems realistic and idealistic solution of the Troubles in Northern Ireland.

To Yeats, as Mario Praz remarks in The Romantic Agony, sex was “the mainspring of works of imagination”(vx). This paper is an attempt to read Yeats’s “A Woman Young and Old” in terms of poetic representations of feminine sexuality and gender. All written in years 1929 through 1931, the sequence of eleven poems deal with the problems of female body and desire in a repressive patriarchal society. The first and introductory part of the paper briefly surveys the social and cultural background of the poems. The centrality of the subject of feminine sexuality and gender in these poems shows that Yeats saw the social and cultural repression of women and their sexual desire as one of the serious and urgent problems facing Ireland at that time. In Ireland of the 1920s, where the new national frame was being created under the hegemony of the Catholic Church and the middle class, the general attitude toward the women’s position and role and their sexual expression was very conservative and repressive. The main part of the paper closely reads the poems of the sequence, from “Father and Child” in which a daughter boldly asserts sexual freedom in defiance of her father’s opposition and criticism, to “From the ‘Antigone’” which shows another daughter defying the authority of king for the sake of filial love and the freedom of conscience. In reading the poems, this paper tries to show how Yeats’s awareness and affirmation of the female body and desire is expressed in his criticism of the repressive sexual morality and culture of the Irish society, especially the Catholic Church. In opposition to that sexually repressive and ascetic culture, he shows women’s body and sexual desire in such a bold and affirmative way that the poetic expression itself turns out to be an effective critique of that culture.

The Old Age of Queen Maeve(1903) is a very short pure dramatic poem, which deals with Queen Maeve’s heroic episode related to the god of love Aengus’s love affair in the ancient pagan period of Ireland. In this work Yeats expresses his strong will to disinter almost forgotten ancient narratives and propagate them among the contemporary Irish people who are getting quite unfamiliar with them, and at the same time he expresses his admiration of his beloved Maud Gonne more overtly and proudly than in any other work by juxtaposing/overlapping her image with that of Queen Maeve. This poem, along with such long dramatic poems as The Wandering of Oisin(1889) and The Shadowy Waters(1906-12), belongs to the same group of narratives in that all of these are related to his unrequited sweetheart Gonne. However, The Old Age of Queen Maeve is somewhat different from those two in the manner the poet takes toward his beloved, and in this poem he deplores that she too will grow old and die though she is as great, beautiful and passionate a woman as Queen Maeve was. In those two longer poems the star-crossed lovers follow heartbreaking pattern of love―meeting only after their death. But in The Old Age of Queen Maeve the lovers are supposed to meet each other in this world eventually, however long time it will take, as Aengus was to meet his lover Caer by the help of Queen Maeve and her grandchildren. In this article the present writer intends to descry Yeats’s purpose of using the ancient Irish myths and his power of creating an individual mythology based on them, and interpret the symbolical meanings caused by the overlapped images of Maeve and Gonne.

Irish literature since Free State has shown Anglo-Irish predicament, reflecting the hope of Gaelic Revival armed with catholicism and strong nationalism. However ultimately Irish literature is to recover the conflicts of the colonized hybridity, and to make a common-ground for the interest of all Irish people. In the connection with this, it is very interesting that we should frequently meet with the word ‘violence’ in Irish literary history. Aesthetical transformation of the historical violence is featured in most of modern Irish poets in the sense that a poet as a subject shows some response to the violence as a part of his own poetic experiences. The violence in Heaney’s and Yeats’s poetry is concerned with the problem who holds the hegemony in the independent Irish society. Yeats and Heaney stand on the opposite social position and represent the race they respectively belong to.-Yeats represents Anglo-Irish and Heaney the Gaelic. I think Yeats mainly depends on satire to express his disgust against the newly emerging catholic middle class. whereas Heaney seems to express his resistance rather secretly by combining lyricism and violence. The combination of the two heterogeneous elements in Heaney’s poetry not only expresses the poet’s resistance to violence effectively but brings forth the sense of beauty which is made by applying the aesthetic theory of ‘discordia concors’ and ‘defamiliarisation’ etc. Besides creating beauty, the combination of lyricism and violence suggests fixing the temporary time of violence to the permanent space. In addition, it suggests an Irish realistic attitude in front of the oppressed situation as well as their pride in Irish landscape. At the same time, it reflects the poet’s spirit for transcending two binary concepts and accepting coexistence in difference. Yeats attacks the philistine by using the tone of satire. Narrator, imaging the ideal world, alienated from the materialized mass, evokes the romantic heroism, and inspires the mood of tragic joy. Meanwhile the beauty Yeats evokes involves the praise of harmonious individuality full of life energy without digressing from the European aristocratic spirit. In conclusion, poetry can be a strategic weapon especially in a destitute time. Yeats, by evoking the mood of ‘tragic rapture’ and by poignantly satirizing the catholic middle class as philistines, tries to save Anglo-Irish from their declining fate. Meanwhile Heaney, combining lyricism and violence as one way of aestheticization, shows his resistance against the historical violence without losing the sense of beauty. These poetics as two main streams still coexist in modern Irish literary history. And yet they all contribute to establishing Irish literature on one common-ground and making Irish literature merge into the international literature. Although they represent the different interests of two classes, they illuminate the new possibility of coexistence in difference.

예이츠의 “The Double Vision of Michael Robartes”는 대개 그가 쓴 A Vision의 맥락에서 분석되어지고 있다. 즉 Ellmann, Bloom, Henn, 그리고 Bornstein 같은 비평가들은 시인이 서로 대립되는 세계로 분류한 제 일 장과 제 십오 장을 합일하려는 시도에 초점을 맞추어 이 시를 해석하고 있다. 하지만 아직 밝혀지지 않은 사실은 이 시는 전형적인 동양의 명상 과정을 모델로 그 구조가 이루어져있고 그 명상 의 목적은 육체나 영혼, 삶과 죽음, 그리고 움직임과 정지와 같은 서로 대립되는 세력의 조화로운 합일 뿐 만 아니라 동양과 서양의 합일이라는 예이츠의 정치적의식도 포함되어 있다는 것이다. 다시 말해 그가 그의 여러 글에서 주장했던 유럽과 아시아의 합일의 꿈이 자비를 의미하는 동양의 상징인 부처와 지성을 의미하는 서양의 상징인 스핑크스의 합일이라는 형식을 빌려 서서히 드러나기 시작했으며 이것으 로 우리는 그가 민족주의의 한계를 느껴 서서히 민족주의자에서 세계주의자의 의식으로 전환하고 있음을 알 수 있는 것이다. 그러나 그의 대부분의 시가 그렇듯이 동양과 서양의 결혼의 가능성에 대한 언급은 있지만 그것이 구체적으로 실현될 지에 대한 시인의 명확한 대답은 유보되어 있는 형편이다. 이는 예이츠가 평생을 바쳐 풀려다 결국 풀지 못한 초월세계에 대한 의구심 때문이 아닌가 한다.

Yeats는 현대시인이라 이해하기 쉽다. 반면, Milton은 르네상스 시인이고 아주 복잡하고 어렵다. Milton은 당대에 뿐만 아니라 우리에게 어렵게 느껴진다. 그의 시어의 특징 때문이기도 한데, 당대의 독자에게도 그러했다. 그러나 위에서 보았듯이, 그의 시어와 시의 내용의 위대함에는 동의했다. Yeats도 자신의 주제에 적절한 표현 방식을 빚어낸다. 처음 그의 시를 대하면, 그의 시가 일상의 대화처럼 간결하게 명쾌해 보이나, 이른바 Keats가 말하는 다른 감각을 느끼게 한다. Milton과 Yeats 둘 다 음악적이나 다르게 느껴진다. Milton은 읽을수록 모던하게 느껴지며, 반면 Yeats는 퍽 신비롭게 다가와 어떤 왕국의 신비주의자처럼 느껴진다. Milton과 Yeats의 여성에 대한 태도를 보자. Milton은 사랑의 자유로움을 주장하지만 조심스러운 태도를 보이며, Yeats는 남성과 여성이 각기 다른 역할을 가진다고 믿는 것 같다. Yeats는 여인들과 정신적 육체적으로 깊은 관계를 맺는다. 위에서 비평가들이 지적 한대로, Milton 시어는 당대의 시어와도 달랐고, Yeats와는 아주 다르다. 그러나 이 두 시인들이 자극하는 상상력은 최고로 강렬하다. 왜냐하면 그들의 언어는 각기 다르지만, 가장 적절하고 효과적으로 작용한다. 시간과 공간이 둘을 가르고 있지만, 둘 다 좋은 시의 요소를 갖추고 있다. 두 시인은 전혀 다른 두 종류의 시를 썼으나, 우리에게 주는 감동은 마찬가지로 강렬하다.

In this paper, through appreciating one of W. B. Yeats’s later poems, I try to find how the poet’s creative self gets to have its creative power and in what mechanism it expands its poetic circumference. “Among School Children” is the very poem his poetic self and creative imagination are well wrought into. In the poem, the poet suggests that power and knowledge cannot exist together, speaking of the powerful theories of Plato and simultaneously of the philosopher’s powerless being before Nature. He praises Aristotle as a king of kings, and Pythagoras as world-famous golden-thighed, but he mocks them of being old clothes upon an old stick to scare a bird. In the same way, he asserts that “the body is not bruised to pleasure soul.” In the sense of deconstructionists, all the binary oppositions have their hierarchies; however, Yeats puts the two antithetical elements on the identical level, as they are not subordinated to each other, and tries to bridge the abyss or space between. Such an attempt to unite the opposite worlds is manifested in his A Vision. Concerning his “gyre” theory, the figure is frequently drawn as a double cone. The one is called primary gyre, representing space, intellect, mask and fortune; the other antithetical one to represent time, emotion, creativity and will. The narrow end of each cone is in the centre of the broad end of the other. Seen at the narrow end of each cone through the centre of each broad end, appears a circle having a dot at the center. This is the poet’s world of imagination whose centre is his “self” and whose circumference is the limit of the self’s perception. The poet’s life-long activities are related with his efforts to expand the circumference. “Among School Children” is a trace of such activities. The centre is the place where the self of the poet is located; the circumference is where the self “perceives its limitation,” or where arises the feeling of awe, terror, or ecstasy, which means a kind of tension geared between the binary opposite worlds: the finite and the infinite; the mortal and the immortal; life and death; the real and the ideal; youth and age; the body and soul; pleasure and despair. The perception network of the poet connects the centre and circumference. The power to widen the circle originates from the poet’s paradoxical sense of life, of deprivation, and of renunciation through an attainable love with Maud Gonne, tensions between religious struggles, civil revolutions, and so on. The sharp confrontation of these tensions takes place rise to in the circumference and stimulates the poet’s creative imagination. This power of self strengthened by these tensions starts its quest-journey to explore the mysteries beyond the limit of its circle: the mysteries of the opposite worlds separated here and there. The ultimate purpose of the journey, finally, is to reach the united condition of the two worlds, which means what Greg Johnson calls “the highest imaginative enhancement of human identity” or immortality. This united world is the place where “we cannot know the dancer from the dance” and where Yeats’s “unity of being” is synthesized.

I have just read two of the greatest writers of the 20th century, W. B. Yeats and Jose Saramago. As there is almost no source of Saramago for reference or for study, the only and best way to study them was to read him closely. As a matter of fact, it seems to me the best to measure up the depth and width of Saramago as novelist by going deep into his novel, The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis. The workmanship of Saramago, as in the case of Yeats, is extremely delicate and precise. Every image, every syllable of every word, each counts while in the process of the story as well as toward the end of the story. Saramago casts away the quotation marks when he has a dialog; as a result, when reading a dialog, you can’t tell who is who. But no problem arises, for once you read it, you enjoy being forced to go along the dialog, understanding and appreciating every syllable of the words in the sentences, as if you are part of the dialog. This is one secret attraction to Saramago. That is, he is a great, inventive stylist. Another characteristic is that Saramago makes no distinction between the visible and the invisible world. Just as Yeats did, before him, Saramago treats the invisible as if it is alive and lives with you. Compared with Saramago, Yeats is read through one of his best stories, “The Crucifixion of the Outcast.” Yet, as Yeats had been studied for quite a long time, both in English-speaking world and in other countries, like Korea, I could have more than enough materials with me. So, I decided to use his Letters exclusively. As in other stories of The Secret Rose, Yeats’s use of punctuation is traditional, as in his poetry; yet, if you look closer, you will see Yeats is different from other traditional writers. He has gone much farther than his contemporaries. Yeats as novelist should be reevaluated. His workmanship as short storyteller compares well with his French counterparts. Yeats could be a great novelist, if he had worked on it further, as Robert Bridges had once advised him to do. But as he is, Yeats as novelist should be thought of highly, as the finest novelists of the 20th century, like Saramago (who might have been influenced by Yeats’s stories) must been inspired by the fire Yeats has just bought from heaven.

이 논문의 전제는 Yeats와 Walcott 둘 다 “화가”라는 데에, 그래서 그들의 예술관이 시에 대한 견해로 풀이될 수 있는 작가들이라 점이다. Yeats와 Walcott는 예술의 두 큰 줄기로 구분되어 질 수 있다. 즉, 고전주의와 인상주의가 그것이다. 본 논문이 논의한 각 개념들과 이론들의 출발점은 이 두 가지 이다. Loizeaux은 Yeats를 가장 광범위하고 깊이 있게 시각예술의 관점에서 다루고 있는데, 그녀의 결론은 Yeats의 시가 조각적이라는 것이다. 이 결론은 날카로운 관찰인데도, 그녀는 Yeats가 본질적으로 Classicism의 form을 지니고 있다고 까지는 지적하지 못하는 것 같다. 본 논문은 지나친 단순화의 위험에도 불구하고, Yeats를 그러한 기질의 시인이라는 결론을 내린다. 그러나, 그가 고전주의 시인이라는 말과 는 전혀 다르다는 것도 지적해 둔다. 반면에, Walcott은 초기의 자기 주변의 영향과 자신의 성향에도 불구하고, 기질과 태생적으로 인상주의적 경향을 보이는 시인이다. 그의 시적 기법은 인상주의 화가 Cezanne에 근접한다고 보아도 좋은 것 같다. 그러나, 두 시인 모두 “artistic expression”으로서의 technique는 완벽하게 다듬은 것으로 받아 드려진다. 두 시인의 최고의 시들은 형식에는 판이한 차이를 보이나,“하늘에서 불을 가져오는”데에는 성공한다. 둘 다 우리에게 위대한 시적 유산을 남긴 시인들이다.

Yeats remarked, two years before his death, that it is the poets’ first business to describe desirable persons, desirable places, and states of mind. One of theses excellent persons and places in Last Poems―ascetics and the “half-way house” the Chinamen of “Lapis Lazuli” climb towards. Here we notice how many topographical associations lay everywhere: “the mountain,” “Alt” and the central character climbing some high point. Having lifted himself to the vantage point of age, Yeats is able to form a final altitude. The last poems are mainly set in the location of the open field, that dominates the poetic landscape. ‘The whole system’ of A Vision ‘is founded upon the belief that ultimate realit y…falls in human consciousness into a series of antinomies.’ Since he had long arranged his thought and disciplined his imagination by ideas of antithesis, it is natural that his later work should play out an extended series of oppositions: knowledge and ignorance; day and night; time and eternity. In the process of consciousness they have a tendency to be separated from each other into various sets of the opposite; while their attendant logic characterizes a struggle towards harmony. ‘Logical and emotional conflicts alike lead towards a reality which is concrete, sensuous and bodily.’ “Meru” invokes an image of human being in conflict with the cyclicity of a cosmic rhythm. Yeats, identified with the oriental hermits in the ascetic attitude to life, sees “the naked bodies” to awake to the realities of life, he is reassured that the higher perception should be gained through their sensuous experiences in the darkness of night. According to St. John of Cross, ‘the nature of the soul requires complete renunciation of the world.’ The darkness brings wisdom, emptiness sight. Yeats would describe it as ‘the luminous dark.’ This implies in ‘via negativa’ that one is nothing, paradoxically, to become everything. The open region for everything is the place Heidegger called ‘clairiēre,’ which Yeats would like to paint in his poetry. Its openness let brightness play with darkness in it. The relation to light and darkness characterizes as ‘a double’ like the dawn image. This curious relation Adams claims to name ‘identity.’ Identity has the same form, as does a metaphorical trope, where sameness and difference coexist in language. He would write a poem ‘cold and passionate as the dawn.’ The important metaphor, which Yeats uses to describe the intersection of the two worlds, is that of dawn. In this paper I was concerned with both the realm where religion, art, personal consciousness converge and the place in which gathers and protects everything. Yeats was life long a man who practiced both absolute integrity of craft and perfection of personality, the perfection of its surrender. I take poetry to be an exploration of human consciousness, where it faces time and eternity in their play. Equally it is an exploration of words.