『The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal』에 기고했던 재중 선교사 티모티 리차드, 존 로스, 및 D. Z. 셰필드의 글들은 19세기에 맺어진 서구열강과 중국 간의 조약들, 그 조약에 포함된 선교적 권리들, 그리고 선교사의 향후 태도에 대하여 서로 다른 견해를 보여준다. 리차드는, ‘조약권리’ 중 기독교 선교와 관련된 항목들이 본국 외교부와 중국 관료들에 의해 이행되지 않으면서 더 많은 중국 신자들의 박해가 일어나고 선교에 큰 장애가 되어왔다고 간주하여, 동 권리의 이행 및 법 개정을 위한 외교부의 노력을 주장하였다. 그는 ‘신자들의 종교자유권’, ‘선교사의 내지거주권’, 그리고 박해자의 처벌을 포함하는 ‘신자 및 선교사 보호권’을 강력히 요구하였다. 그의 주장은 선교현장에서 ‘선교의 자유’를 충분히 얻지 못하고 있던 개신교 선교사공동체의 내적인 딜레마를 잘 보여주고 있지만, 또한 그의 제국주의적 서구의 중국침탈에 대한 인식의 결여를 잘 보여준다. 로스는, 선교사들이 서구열강의 억압으로 쥐어짜낸 ‘조약권리’에서 나오는 선교적 권리를 포기하고, 신자들과 비신자간에 일어난 분쟁을 해결하기 위하여 공사관의 권력에 의지하지 말며, 극단적인 박해사건에 개입하되 관리들과의 ‘직접적인 대화’를 통하여 ‘우호적인 방식’으로 문제를 해결할 것을 제안하였다. 그의 견해는 서구 제국주의의 본질을 통찰하고 중국인들의 입장을 고려하고자 하는 것이다. 그 역시 텐진조약이 가져다 준 북부항구의 개방이라는 외교적 조건 안에서 기독교 선교를 수행하는 한계를 안고 있었지만, 선교적 문제해결에서 ‘가장 덜 제국주의적인 방식’의 해결을 제안하였다. 이와 달리, 셰필드는, 기독교선교와 문명의 전파를 위하여 서구국가가 역할을 해야 한다고 역설하였다. 기독교신앙과 진보정신 그리고 우월한 인종을 보유한 서구기독교국가의 선교는 독자적인 가치를 지니며 서구국가들 및 중국의 보호를 받을 만하다고 보았다. 기독교 선교의 방법으로써 말(word)과 힘(power)을 제안하는 셰필드의 견해는 매우 가부장적이며, 나아가 서구제국주의에 대한 무비판적인 태도를 보여준다. 리차드, 로스, 그리고 셰필드는 청말의 동시대에 중국선교사로 일하였지만, 중국의 조약법 및 기독교선교를 위한 조약법의 이행에 대하여 매우 다른 견해를 가졌음을 보여준다.

Since 1884, many western Protestant missionaries came to Korea. The missionaries initially treated of the spiritual perspective of Koreans as superstitious and ignorance-oriented. Especially in the field of medicine, the Western perspective seemed to be far advanced than the Korean traditional perspective. According to the Korean traditional view, sicknesses was in many cases caused by intrusions of spiritual beings. Therefore, to cure the sick, one had to cast out those spiritual beings out of the bodies through placations or by force. With such perceptions, Korean people were not able to overcome the hard situations caused by the contagious diseases such as pestilence, small pox, and typoid fever. Western missionaries could take advantage on those matters in order to help Koreans and thereby achieving the trust of Korean government. Even though Western science and medicine proved their effectiveness through such medical works, excessive reliance can cause one to fall into the idolatry of worshipping medicine instead of God. Throughout the development in the area of science and technology, Westerners have tended to look everything through the scientific perspectives. Through such trends Western societies were believed to run the course of secularization throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. God and His supernatural world have been marginalized especially in public areas. According to Professor Paul G. Hiebert, even missionaries with severe Western cultural backgrounds have difficulties in understanding the spirit world of the native people. Early missionaries to Korea were not exceptions. They also had difficulties when they first met the Koreans and tried to understand their spiritual view points. In contrast to the Westerners who generally do not recognize the spiritual beings around them, the Koreans recognized the spiritual beings such as ghosts, ancestors in almost every aspect of their lives. Koreans were famous in maintaining the practices related to such spiritual beings throughout their ancient history. When the missionaries first observed practices related to the spiritual beings, they judged Koreans to be ingnorant or superstitious. However, the missionaries continuously tried to understand the people and their worldviews. When they were unable to understand the Korean worldview on the spiritual beings, they resorted not to the Western naturalistic perspective but to the Bible. Through comparison between the Korean traditional perspectives and the Biblical perspectives, they discovered that the Biblical perspectives were more similar to the Korean traditional perspectives. And with careful observation and examination of the Korean ministers’ deliverance works, they changed their thought about the spirit world. The demons and spiritual beings which were regarded to harass Korean people were not supterstitions or fatacies. They were real beings confirmed by the Bible. The native Korean ministers contributed a lot in the paradigm shift from Western perspective to the Korean perspective on the reality of spiritual beings. The Korean ministers viewed the Bible differently. They believed Bible stories where the possessed were released by Jesus and his disciples. The faith of Korean ministers proved to be simple and firm enough to follow the practices of Jesus and his disciples in casting out demons. When the missionaries heard about the stories of deliverances by the Korean ministers and believers, they did not stop but rather carefully examined such behaviors in light of the Bible. The final criteria of missionaries were not the western but the Biblical perspective. With such criteria, they accepted and recognized the deliverance ministries of the Korean believers. Some missionaries, when asked if they could cast out demons out of troubled, succeeded in the deliverance ministries. In my estimation, the Nevius mission plan contributed greatly in making harmony and cooperation between the missionaries and the Korean ministers. God brought Koreans who were troubled with spiritual bondage into the Kingdom of God through such faithful servants of God. The reasons the early protestant missionaries to Korea brought such great success in evangelizing Korea were foremost their deep reliance to the Bible as the Word of God and secondly their deep understanding of Koreans and their ways of thinking.

Since Korea disclaimed to open the ports, Korean architecture has met the impetuous transformation. Although there would be various factors of this transformation, the new-coming architecture by missionary seemed to be a significant one, and many researches have been carried out on this theme in diverse viewpoints. However, because these researches have preponderated on the Catholic tradition, it is deficient for clarify the whole history of mission architecture. Therefore, this research has the meaning to enrich the history of Korean modern architecture by making balance. First of all, this paper is focused on the activities of one missionary, Graham Lee. He is a practical missionary at the beginning, his architecture made a critical influence in Korean traditional architecture. Graham Lee was born in Rock Island, Illinois, 1861, and he determined to become a missionary through grown up. He spent his boyhood by working as a plumber for his purpose and studied in a university afterward. Graduating of McComick Theological Seminary, he was nominated as a pioneer of Pyeng Yang Mission Station and set foot in Korea, September of 1892. Since then he started to erect missionary facilities in Pyeng Yang, such as Well House(1898), Pyeng Yang Central Church(1900-1901), Pyeng Yang Academy(1902). These all his works are designed with eclectic style which shows western and Korean traditional style intermingled. This unique characteristic made a profound influence to the Korean mission architecture afterwards. Especially, the L-type plan of Pyeng Yang Central Church, which is first shown by him, is recognized very unique, and this plan type had been spread all over the country. Therefore the L-type plan became the peculiar feature of the early Korean churches. Furthermore, working with Korean carpenters, he taught them new skills of modem buildings. After that, they were expanded out northern part of Korea and took the roles of master builders. According to this expansion, his particular style had got spread and had been settled as a unique eclectic style in Korean modern architecture. In the conclusion, he is evaluated to be a critical pioneer missionary, who left a big influence on the frame work of Korean modern architecture in the transitional times.

본 연구의 목적은 초기 내한 선교사들이 한국 무속신앙을 어떻게 이해 했는지를 보다 종합적으로 살펴보는 것이다. 지금까지 몇몇 연구자들이 선교사들의 한국 무속 이해를 간략하게 언급하였고, 선교사들의 한국 종교 이해를 다룬 연구도 있었다. 그러나 무속신앙에 초점을 맞추어 보다 체계적으로 분석한 것은 존재하지 않는다. 그런 의미에서 본 연구는 초기 선교사들이 무속신앙을 어떻게 이해했는지를 살펴볼 수 있는 하나의 창을 제공한다. 본 연구는 선교사들이 인식한 한국 종교 체계 속에서 무속신앙의 위치를 다룬다. 한국인들이 무속신앙을 어떻게 느꼈다고 선교사들이 인식했는지도 다룬다. 한국인들의 무속신앙 인식에 따른 다양한 행동들도 분석한다. 한국인들의 무속신앙 속에서 선교사들이 기복주의를 발견했음도 살펴본다. 악귀와 관련된 다양한 무속신앙의 치유방법들이 선교사들에게 목격되었음도 살펴본다. 그리고 선교사들이 무속신앙을 비판적으로 인식하며 대결의 대상으로 삼았음도 확인한다. 본 연구의 방법론은 문헌연구이다. 선교사들은 한국 선교 경험을 토대로 책을 저술하였고, 편지, 잡지, 일기를 통해 그들의 무속신앙에 대한 견해를 드러냈다. 이러한 자료들을 분석하여 선교사들의 이해를 분석하여 정리하게 될 것이다.