Evaporative emission generated through the fuel supply system of a gasoline automobile is prevented into the atmosphere through an activated carbon canister system. In this study, the oxygen functional group of activated carbon was controlled using a simple gas phase treatment to improve evaporative emission reduction performance, and the adsorption/desorption performance of evaporative emissions was evaluated according to microwave heating conditions. Microwave heating was used to remove the oxygen functional group of the activated carbon efficiently. Microwave heating was found to remove oxygen functional groups in a short treatment time (1–7 min). Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscope–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were employed to investigate modifying the oxygen functional group of the activated carbon. Using N2/ 77K adsorption/desorption isotherm, the textural properties of the activated carbon according to microwave heating conditions were examined. The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) equation was used to calculate the specific surface area of the activated carbon, and the Dubinin–Radushkevich (DR) equation was used to calculate the micropore volume of activated carbon. Microwave heating effectively increased the butane working capacity, which is the neat adsorption capacity of activated carbon, from 7.12 g/100 ml to a maximum of 8.04 g/100 ml.

Sugarcane bagasse has been used as a substrate for the development of microporous nano-activated carbons for the treatment and elimination of dissolved materials from aquatic environment. The activated carbon was produced using chemical activation in one-step method with zinc chloride ( ZnCl2) as the activating agent at a carbonization temperatures range from 500 to 900 °C. The effects of temperature and time of carbonization on the activated carbon product properties were thoroughly studied. The activated carbons that resulted were characterized using the N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller method (BET), pore property analysis, micropore (MP) surface area, t-plot surface area, TGA, FTIR, SEM, TEM, and EDX analyses. The prepared activated carbon’s point of zero charge, Boehm titration process, iodine removal percentage, and methylene blue number were also investigated. The prepared activated carbon’s maximum surface area was achieved using a 2/1 impregnation ratio (dried sugarcane bagasse/ZnCl2) at 600 °C temperature of carbonization and 60 min residence time. 1402.2 m2/ g, 0.6214 and 1.41 cm3/ g, respectively, were the largest surface area, total pore volume, and micropore volume. As the activation temperature increased, the total pore volume increased and the BET study measured a pore diameter of 0.7 nm and a mean pore diameter of 1.77 nm.

The effect of heat treatment and vacuum conditions on the textural properties and electrochemical performance of commercially available activated carbons (ACs) was investigated. The AC after post-heat treatment was characterized by nitrogen adsorption–desorption, X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy measurements. The ACs treated under vacuum conditions exhibit a higher specific surface area and micropore surface area than those treated under nitrogen atmospheric pressure without significantly affecting the graphite structure of the AC. Under 800 °C temperature and vacuum conditions (AC-V800), the AC with the highest Brunauer– Emmett–Teller surface area of 1951.9 m2 g−1 (16.4% improvement relative to that of the original AC (1677.2 m2 g−1)) was obtained. This is attributed to the removal of oxygen-containing functional groups and volatile matters in the carbon by thermal treatment under vacuum conditions. Consequently, the electric double-layer capacitor using ACs treated under vacuum conditions (1 kPa) at 800 °C (AC-V800) shows considerably improved electrochemical performance in terms of higher specific capacitance and better cycling stability at a high working voltage (3.1 V), compared to the nitrogen-treated and commercial ACs.

Preparation of activated carbons from wood waste including northern hardwood pins-fines and wood dust was conducted and then compared through the following methods: physical pyrolysis and CO2 activation, vacuum pyrolysis and CO2 activation, CO2 gasification, and vacuum CO2 gasification processes. Experimental results show that chars and activated carbons with high surface area and pore volume are produced from wood waste through a vacuum CO2 pyrolysis/gasification process. The effects of operation variables of vacuum pyrolysis/gasification on the properties of chars and activated carbons were investigated to identify and optimize the temperature, heating time, and heating rate. The optimized vacuum CO2 gasification conditions were found to be a temperature of 800 °C, a heating rate of 20 °C/min, and a holding time of 2 h respectively. The prepared wood-chars and activated carbons were characterized by nitrogen physisorption, scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra determined any changes in the surface functional groups produced during different preparation stages.

The present work reports the effect of different functionalization methodologies on surface modification of porous carbon and its efficacy for benzene adsorption. The virgin and surface-modified adsorbents were characterized by FTIR, N2 sorption analysis, SEM, and Boehm titration. The adsorption isotherms were measured at different temperatures using a highly sensitive magnetic suspension microbalance. At lower benzene concentration, the virgin carbon was found to possess reasonable adsorption capacity, while at higher benzene concentration, the surface-modified carbon tends to perform better. The maximum benzene adsorption capacity at 25 °C and vapor pressure of 90 mbar is as follows: 467 mg/g (NORIT-AC), 227 mg/g (AC-APS (1 M)), 388 mg/g (Norit-AC-HT), 492 mg/g (AC-HNO3), and 531 mg/g (AC-H2SO4).

Starting materials are very significant to produce activated carbons because every starting material has a different chemical structure; hence they affect the surface functional groups and surface morphologies of obtained activated carbons. In this study, sycamore balls, ripe black locust seed pods, and Nerium oleander fruits have been used as starting materials by ZnCl2 chemical activations for the first time. Firstly, activated carbons were obtained from these starting materials with ZnCl2 chemical activation by changing production conditions (carbonization time, carbonization temperature, and impregnation ratio) also affecting the structural and textural properties of the resultant activated carbons. Then, the starting materials and resultant activated carbons were characterized by utilizing diverse analysis techniques, such as TGA, elemental analysis, proximate analysis, BET surface areas, pore volumes, pore size distributions, N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms, SEM, FTIR spectra, and H2 adsorption isotherms. The highest surface areas were determined to be 1492.89, 1564.84, and 1375.47 m2/g for the activated carbons obtained from sycamore balls, ripe black locust seed pods, and N. oleander fruits, respectively. The yields of these activated carbons with the highest surface areas were calculated to be around 40%. As the carbonization temperature increased with sufficient ZnCl2 amount, N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms began to turn into Type IV isotherms given by mesoporous adsorbents with its hysteresis loops. Also, their hysteresis loops resembled Type H4 loop generally associated with narrow slit-like pores. Moreover, hydrogen uptakes under 750 mmHg at 77 K were determined to be 1.31, 1.48, and 1.24 wt% for the activated carbons with the maximum surface areas produced from sycamore balls, ripe black locust seed pods, and N. oleander fruits, respectively. As a result, the highest surface areas of the activated carbons with different structural properties produced in this study were obtained with different production conditions.

Abstract Activated carbon from the shell of the cashew of Para (SCP) was produced by chemical activation with ZnCl using the ratio of SCP: ZnCl2 1.0:1.5 at 700 °C. The prepared activated carbon (SCP700) was used for the removal of two emerging contaminants, 4-bromophenol (4-BrPhOH) and 4-chloroaniline (4-ClPhNH2) that are primarily employed in the industry. Different analytical techniques were used to characterize the activated carbon. From the N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms were obtained the specific surface area of 1520 m2 g− 1 and total pore volume of 0.492 cm3 g−1. The functional groups were identified by the FTIR technique and quantified by modified Boehm titration. The results revealed the bearing of several functional groups on the SCP700 surface, which may utterly influence the removal of the emerging contaminants. The equilibrium experiments showed that the maximum uptaken capacities (Qmax) achieved at 45 °C were 488.2 (4-BrPhOH) and 552.5 mg g−1 (4-ClPhNH2). The thermodynamic parameters demonstrated that the processes of 4-BrPhOH and 4-ClPhNH2 adsorption are exothermic, spontaneous, energetically suitable, and the magnitude of ΔH° is compatible with physisorption. The mechanism of the adsorption of the emerging contaminants onto the carbon surface is dominated by microporous filling, hydrogen bonds, π-stacking interactions, and other Van der Waals interactions. The use of activated carbon for the treatment of industrial synthetic wastewater with several inorganic and organic molecules commonly found in industrial effluents showed a very high percentage of uptaking (up to 98.64%).

The energy demands of the world have been accelerating drastically because of the technological development, population growth and changing in living conditions for a couple of decades. A number of different techniques, such as batteries and capacitors, were developed in the past to meet the demands, but the gap, especially in energy storage, has been increasing substantially. Among the other energy storage devices, supercapacitors have been advancing rapidly to fill the gap between conventional capacitors and rechargeable batteries. In this study, natural resources such as pistachio and acorn shells were used to produce the activated carbons for electrode applications in a supercapacitor (or an electrical double-layer capacitor— EDLC). The activated carbon was synthesized at two different temperatures of 700 °C and 900 °C to study its effect on porosity and performance in the supercapacitor. The morphology of the activated carbon was studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A solution of tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate ( TEABF4)/propylene carbonate (PC) was prepared to utilize in supercapacitor manufacturing. The performance of the EDLC was investigated using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Activated carbons from both the pistachio and acorn shells synthesized at 700 °C in argon gas for two hours exhibited better surface textures and porosity. There activated carbons also exhibited more capacitor-like behavior and lower real impedances, indicating that they would have superior performance compared to the activated carbons obtained at 900 °C. This study may be used to integrate some of natural resources into high-tech energy storage applications for sustainable developments.

Heteroatoms in situ-doped hierarchical porous hollow-activated carbons (HPHACs) have been prepared innovatively by pyrolyzation of setaria viridis combined with alkaline activation for the first time. The micro-morphology, pore structure, chemical compositions, and electrochemical properties are researched in detail. The obtained HPHACs are served as outstanding electrode materials in electrochemical energy storage ascribe to the particular hierarchical porous and hollow structure, and the precursor setaria viridis is advantage of eco-friendly as well as cost-effective. Electrochemical measurement results of the HPHACs electrodes exhibit not only high specific capacitance of 350 F g−1 at 0.2 A g−1, and impressive surface specific capacitance (Cs) of 49.9 μF cm−2, but also substantial rate capability of 68% retention (238 F g−1 at 10 A g−1) and good cycle stability with 99% retention over 5000 cycles at 5 A g−1 in 6 M KOH. Besides, the symmetrical supercapacitor device based on the HPHACs electrodes exhibits excellent energy density of 49.5 Wh kg−1 at power density of 175 W kg−1, but still maintains favorable energy density of 32.0 Wh kg−1 at current density of 1 A g−1 in 1-ethy-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ( EMIMBF4) ionic liquid electrolyte, and the excellent cycle stability behaviour shows the nearly 97% ratio capacitance retention of the initial capacitance after 10,000 cycles at current density of 2 A g−1. Overall, the results indicate that HPHACs derived from setaria viridis have appealing electrochemical performances thus are promising electrode materials for supercapacitor devices and large-scale applications.

We studied trichloroethylene (TCE) adsorption from aqueous solutions in equilibrium conditions by activated carbons (AC). They differ in raw materials, porous structure characteristics and chemical state of the surface. TCE adsorption isotherms were found to have a concave shape, which is characteristic of a sorbent—sorbate weak interaction. It can be a result from electrostatic repulsion of organic matter molecule from polar groups on carbon surface and adsorbed water molecules. The basic parameters of adsorption were calculated by the Dubinin–Radushkevich equation. We determined that for AG-OV-1 and SKD-515 in the coordinates of the Dubinin–Radushkevich equation, there are two linear plots suggesting adsorption in pores of different sizes or reorientation of adsorbate molecules on the activated carbon surface. The efficiency of TCE removal by the activated carbons was evaluated. To reduce the TCE to the maximum allowable, the lowest sorbent consumption was observed for AC with the highest values of surface area and micropore volume. However, the high cost and hydrophobicity of these adsorbents make it impractical to use them in adsorption columns with a fixed layer. We offered an adsorbent that reasonably combines extraction efficiency, ease of operation and economic feasibility.

Wood sawdust from an invasive arboreal species, Parkinsonia aculeata, and seeds from a tropical fruit of massive consumption, Pouteria sapota, were used as precursors for the development of activated carbons (ACs) directed to CO2 adsorption. Chemical activation employing KOH as activating agent and pre-established experimental conditions was applied. Main physicochemical properties of the ACs in relation to their CO2 adsorption performance were examined. The ACs developed from the wood sawdust and the seeds presented specific surfaces areas of 770 and 1000 m2 g−1, respectively, with their porosity development resulting essentially microporous (< 2 nm). They also showed a similar content of acidic surface groups, but basic functionalities of the former duplicated those of the latter. Maximum CO2 adsorbed at equilibrium (273 K and 100 kPa) was 5.0 mmol g−1 and 4.4 mmol g−1 for the samples derived from the sawdust and the seeds, respectively. On the other hand, CO2 adsorption capacities mimicking post-combustion conditions, as evaluated from thermogravimetric assays and breakthrough curves obtained in a packed-bed column, were approximately 1 mmol g−1, indicating a good CO2 adsorption performance for both ACs. Nevertheless, those derived from the wood sawdust with a notorious preeminence of micropores (~ 93%), narrower pore size distribution centered around 1 nm, and a higher content of basic functionalities than the ACs obtained from the seeds showed a relatively better performance. The CO2 removal capacity of the activated carbons was not noticeably affected after five CO2 adsorption–desorption cycles, with both samples almost keeping their initial CO2 adsorption capacity.

In this study, we used activated carbon(AC) as a carbon source, along with zeolite, to prepare spherical carbons using sucrose, starch and phenolic resin(PR) as binder material. The physicochemical characteristics of the three samples(AZ4P, AZ6P and AZ8P) were examined by BET, XRD, SEM, EDX, H2S/NH3 gas adsorption, compressive strength and ignition test techniques. Through comparative analysis of the compressive strength and ignition test results the AZ8P sample was found to have the best hardness and the highest temperature resistance capacity. After activation, the AZ8P sample had the best H2S adsorption capacity, and AZ6P was the most suitable for the adsorption of ammonia.

Date palm leaflets were used as a precursor to prepare dehydrated carbon (DC) via phosphoric acid treatment at 150°C. DC, acidified with H3PO4, was converted to activated carbon (AC) at 500°C under a nitrogen atmosphere. DC shows very low surface area (6.1 m2/g) while AC possesses very high surface area (829 m2/g). The removal of lisinopril (LIS) and chlorpheniramine (CP) from an aqueous solution was tested at different pH, contact time, concentration, and temperature on both carbons. The optimal initial pH for LIS removal was 4.0 and 5.0 for DC and AC, respectively. However, for CP, initial pH 9.0 showed maximum adsorption on both carbons. Adsorption kinetics showed faster removal on AC than DC with adsorption data closely following the pseudo second order kinetic model. Adsorption increases with temperature (25°C–45°C) and activation energy (Ea) is in a range of 19–25 kJ mol/L. Equilibrium studies show higher adsorption on AC than DC. Thermodynamic parameters show that drug removal is endothermic and spontaneous with physical adsorption dominating the adsorption process. Column adsorption data show good fitting to the Thomas model. Despite its very low surface area, DC shows ~70% of AC drug adsorption capacity in addition of being inexpensive and easily prepared.

Activated carbons (ACs) were prepared by activation of coal tar pitch (CTP) in the range of 700°C-1000°C for 1-4 h using potassium hydroxide (KOH) powder as the activation agent. The optimal activation conditions were determined to be a CTP/KOH ratio of 1:4, activation temperature of 900°C, and activation time of 3 h. The obtained ACs showed increased pore size distribution in the range of 1 to 2 nm and the highest specific capacitance of 122 F/g in a two-electrode system with an organic electrolyte, as measured by a charge-discharge method in the voltage range of 0-2.7 V. In order to improve the performance of the electric double-layer capacitor electrode, various mixtures of CTP and petroleum pitch (PP) were activated at the optimal activation conditions previously determined for CTP. Although the specific capacitance of AC electrodes prepared from CTP only and the mixtures of CTP and PP was not significantly different at a current density of 1 A/g, the AC electrodes from CTP and PP mixtures showed outstanding specific capacitance at higher current rates. In particular, CTP-PP61 (6:1 mixture) had the highest specific capacitance of 132 F/g, and the specific capacitance remained above 90% at a high current density of 3 A/g. It was found that the high specific capacitance could be attributed to the increased micro-pore volume of ACs with pore sizes from 1 to 2 nm, and the high power density could be attributed to the increased meso-pore volume.

Three activated carbons (ACs) were prepared using NaOH (N) as an activating agent. Hy-drofluoricacid pre-leached rice husk was used as a precursor. After leaching, the precursor was washed with distilled water, dried, crushed, and then sieved; a size fraction of 0.3-0.5 mm was selected for carbonization in the absence of air at 600°C. The carbonization prod-uct (LC) was mixed with NaOH at ratios of 1:2, 1:3, and 1:4 (wt of LC: wt of NaOH) and the produced ACs after activation at 800°C were designated NLC21, NLC31, and NLC41, respectively. Surface and textural properties were determined using nitrogen adsorption at -196°C, scanning electron microscopy images, thermogravimetric analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectra . These ACs were used as adsorbents for lead(II) from aqueous solutions. The effects of the textural properties and the chemistry of the carbon surfaces were investigated and the impact of the operation conditions on the capacity for lead(II) sorption was also considered. Modificationof NLC41 with H2O2 and HNO3 gave two other adsorbents, HNLC41 and NNLC41 respectively. These two new samples exhibited the highest removal capacities for lead(II), i.e.117.5 and 128.2 mg/g, respectively. The adsorption data fittedthe Langmuir isotherm and the kinetic adsorption followed pseudo-second order kinet-ics. The thermodynamic parameters have been determined and they indicated a spontaneous endothermic process.

Physically and chemically activated carbons (ACs) exhibited high adsorption capacities for organic and inorganic pollutants compared with other adsorbents due to their expanded sur-face areas and wide pore volume distribution. In this work, seven steam-ACs with different burn-off have been prepared from cotton stalks. The textural properties of these sorbents were determined using nitrogen adsorption at -196°C .The chemistry of the surface of the present sorbents was characterized by determining the surface functional C-O groups using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, surface pH, pHpzc, and Boehm’s acid-base neutral-ization method. The textural properties and the morphology of the sorbent surface depend on the percentage of burn-off. The surface acidity and surface basicity are related to the burn-off percentage. A theoretical model was developed to finda mathematical expression that relates the % burn-off to ash content, surface area, and mean pore radius. Also, the chemistry of the carbon surface is related to the % burn-off. A mathematical expression was proposed where % burn-off was taken as an independent factor and the other variable as a dependent factor. This expression allows the choice of the value of % burn-off with required steam-AC properties.

Dye removal from waste water via adsorption by activated carbons (ACs) developed from agricultural wastes represents an ideal alternative to other expensive treatment options. Physical and chemical ACs were prepared from rice husks. The textural properties of the ACs were characterized by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller-N2 adsorption and scanning electron microscopy. The chemistry of the carbon surface was investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, base and acid neutralization capacities, pH of the active carbon slurry, and pHpzc. The adsorption capacities of the ACs for the basic dye (methylene blue) and acid dye (acid green 25) were determined using parameters such as contact time, pH, and temperature. NaOH-ACs showed the highest surface area and total pore volume, whereas steam-ACs showed the lowest ones.

Petroleum pitch-based activated carbons (ACs) were obtained in this work from a combination of pretreatment with different amounts of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and chemical activation with potassium hydroxide. The surface characteristics of the pitch after the KMnO4 pretreatment were characterized by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The structural characteristics of the pitch after the KMnO4 pretreatment were determined by means of X-ray diffraction. The influence of the KMnO4 treatment on the textural properties of the petroleum pitch-based ACs was investigated by means of N2/77K adsorption isotherms. The investigation also involved the use of the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller equation and the Dubinin-Radushkevich method. The FT-IR results show that the pretreatment promotes the formation of surface oxygen functionalities and leads to an increase of the interplanar distance (d002) of the functional groups induced between carbon layers. Moreover, the specific surface area of the pitch-based ACs increases in proportion to the amount of KMnO4 pretreatment and reaches its highest value of 2334 m2/g with 2 g of KMnO4 because the surface oxygen groups of the pitch act as an active site during chemical activation.

The scope of this work investigates the relationship between the amount of oxygen-functional groups and hydrogen adsorption capacity with different concentrations of phosphoric acid. The amount of oxygen-functional groups of activated carbons (ACs) is characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The effects of chemical treatments on the pore structures of ACs are investigated by N2/77 K adsorption isotherms. The hydrogen adsorption capacity is measured by H2 isothermal adsorption at 298 K and 100 bar. In the results, the specific surface area and pore volume slightly decreased with the chemical treatments due to the pore collapsing behaviors, but the hydrogen storage capacity was increased by the oxygen-functional group characteristics of AC surfaces, resulting from enhanced electron acceptor-donor interaction at interfaces.

The electrochemical characteristics of electric double layer capacitor(EDLC) were investigated using various carbon materials. The physical properties such as specific surface area and mean pore size of activated carbon were analyzed by BET. The results of the activated carbon used for electrode material showed that the specific surface areas varied from 600 to 1500 m2/g and mean pore sizes from 1.74 to 2.88 nm. A maximum specific capacitance of 0.30 F/cm2 was obtained for the activated carbon with the highest specific surface area and ionic conductivity. Also, it was found that the electrochemical results of the cyclic charge-discharge tests were stable.