This article explores “the Japanese advantage”in the enforcement of ex ante contract commitments in comparison with the United States, arguing that ostensible convergence of Japanese and United States contract practice in on—going business relationships is based on very different assumptions and conditions. Writing in the early 1960s Takeyoshi Kawashima in Japan and Stewart Macaulay in the United States described prevailing views and practices related to business agreements. Their respective observations indicated a tendency in both countries to avoid formal, legally enforceable contacts. For over four decades scholars on both sides of the Pacific have tended view these observations as grounds for arguing for a convergence of contract practice. Recent research efforts have attempted to verify empirically such convergence. On closer examination, however, the conclusions reached by Kawashima and Macaulay rest on very different assumptions. For Kawashima the avoidance of formal contact appears to be based on a desire to avoid the enforcement of ex ante commitments by those who perceive that their bargaining leverage will remain intact throughout an on—going business relationship, thus enabling them to adjust unilaterally to changing circumstances. Similarly enforceable ex ante contractual commitments may also be viewed as less advantageous to those who may have the disadvantage in bargaining leverage at the time of the contracting to the extent that they perceive that they may gain greater ex post leverage. Macaulay, on the other hand emphasized the transactions costs of formal contracting and uncertainty of enforcement that reduced the efficacy of ex ante commitments. This article explores the predicates for both positions. It concludes that with respect to the concerns raised by Macaulay, Japan has a comparative advantage. Because of the organization and values of Japanese judges as well as the legal rules related to both excused non—performance as a result of changing circumstances, the legal rules favor greater certainty in the enforcement of ex ante commitments thereby supporting Kawashima’s foundational observations. Similarly, the greater uncertainty of enforcement as well as the flexibility of the legal rules on impracticability as well as contract termination in the United States justifies Macaulay’s conclusions. Japan’s loss of advantage in terms of effective formal enforcement of contract rights, it is argued, is counter—balanced by the strength of supportive mechanisms of private ordering.

We determined the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of the jewel beetle, Chrysochroa fulgidissima (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) from two overlapping fragments and subsequent sub fragments. The 15,592-bp long C. fulgidissima mitogenome contains gene arrangement and content identical to the most common arrangement found in insects. Most individual C. fulgidissima mitochondrial (mt) genes were well within the range found in the respective genes of other insects. The 875-bp A+T-rich region is shortest among the coleopteran mitogenomes sequenced in their entirety. The region is interesting in that it contains several stem-and-loop structures and tRNA-like structure found in the A+T-rich regions of other insect mitogenomes. As seen in other insect motogenomes the start codon of C. fulgidissima COI gene also is unusual because no typical start codon is available. Three of the 13 protein-coding genes have incomplete termination codon T or TA. All tRNA formed stable stem-and-loop structure, except for tRNASer(AGN), the DHU arm of which formed a simple loop as seen in many other metazoan mt tRNASer(AGN).

We examined the effects of cadmium exposure and various temperature stress on the expression of Pardosa astrigera heat shock protein 70 (HSP70). To do this, P. astrigera HSP70 gene was cloned and its sequence determined. Female spiders collected from non-contaminated region were exposed to 40mM CdCl2 for 2, 4 and 6 weeks by dietary uptake. At the end of every 2, 4 and 6 weeks of exposure, a batch of 5 spiders was collected and total RNA was extracted from each batch of whole bodies. Female spiders were also exposed to different temperatures (20, 25, 30 and 35℃) for 3h and RNA extracted likewise. Transcription profiles of HSP70 in response to cadmium and temperature were determined by quantitative real-time PCR using 18S rRNA as reference gene for data normalization. HSP70 transcription gradually increased during 2,4 and 6 weeks of exposure to cadmium. In particular, the expression level at 6-week exposure was 3.4-fold higher than that of untreated control. In the temperature response, an increased expression of HSP70 was also observed as temperature increased up to 30℃ and then slightly decreased at 35℃. The expression level at 30℃ was 2.3-fold higher than that of 25℃. Taken together, HSP70 gene appears to be up-regulated by general stress factors including cadmium exposure and temperature increase.

A thioredoxin peroxidase (TPx) gene was cloned from the bumblebee, Bumbus ignitus. The B. ignitus TPx (BiTPx) contains an open reading frame of 585 bp encoding 195 amino acid residues and possesses two cysteine residues that are characteristic of 2-Cys subgroup of peroxiredoxin family. The deduced amino acid sequence of the BiTPx cDNA showed 90% identity to Apis melifera (AmTPx-1), 80% to Aedes aegypti (AaTPx), and 78% - 47% to other insect 2-Cys TPx. Northern blot analysis revealed the presence of BiTPx transcripts in all tissues examined. Western blot analysis showed the presence of the BiTPx in the fat body, midgut, muscle and epidermis, but not in the hemolymph, suggesting the BiTPx is not secretable. The cDNA encoding BiTPx was expressed as a 27-kDa polypeptide in baculovirus-infected insect Sf9 cells. The purified recombinant BiTPx was shown to reduce H2O2 in the presence of electrons donated by dithiothreitol and shown to be active in the presence of thioredoxin as electron donor.

Insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are targets for insecticides. Despite the importance of the nAChR as a major target for insecticide action, modulators of nAChRs in insects remain unidentified. Here we describe the cloning and identification of a nAChR modulator gene in an insect. This gene was isolated by searching the firefly Pyrocoelia rufa cDNA library, and the geneitself encodes a protein 120 amino acids in length, named Pr-lynx1. Pr-lynx1 shares all the features, including a cysteine-rich consensus motif and common gene structure, of the Ly-6/neurotoxin superfamily. The recombinant Pr-lynx1, which is expressed as a 12-kDa polypeptide in baculovirus-infected insect Sf9 cells, is normally present at the cell surface asa GPI-anchored protein. Northern and Western blot analyses revealed that Pr-lynx1 is expressed in various tissues, such as the ganglion, brain, mandibular muscle, proventriculus, leg muscle, and epidermis. This expression pattern is similar to the distribution of nAChRs as assayed by α3 nAChR immunoreactivity. Co-expression of Pr-lynx1 in Xenopus oocytes expressing α3β4 nAChRs results in an increase in acetylcholine-evoked macroscopic currents, indicating a functional role of Pr-lynx1 as a protein modulator for nAChRs. This study on Pr-lynx1 is the first report of a modulator of nAChRs in an insect species.