서평

이 논문은 아일랜드 시인들이 역사가 낳은 희생자들을 기술하는 방식을 탐구하는 것에 목적을 둔다. 예술작품에서 영감을 얻어 시로 표현한 엑프래시스 장르 를 통해 이들은 민족의 공식적인 역사 이면에 잊혀진 이들을 되살리는 시도를 한다. 예이츠는 레이디 그레고리와 싱의 초상화로부터 영감을 받아 영국계-아일랜드인들이 아일랜드 사회를 지배하던 과거 전통을 이어받아 상상의 공동체를 건설한다. 예이츠가 희생자들을 통해 전통에 대한 자부심을 드러낸 것과는 달리, 히니는 공동체를 위해 희 생당한 이들을 기억하면서 자신의 죄책감을 표현하는데, 이는 당대 북아일랜드 사태를 떠올리게 했기 때문이다. 또한 예이츠는 지배계급 이데올로기를 반영하여 고정된 민족 정체성을 추구한 반면, 히니는 늪지에 관한 시에서 특정한 관점에 고정되지 않는 민족 정체성을 구상하고 있다. 현대시인 멀둔과 더컨은 희생자들의 이미지를 통해 국가권력 기관의 폭력성을 폭로한다. 멀둔은 정신병원에서 철저히 감시되는 한 개인을 그리고, 더컨은 한 개인의 사적 영역인 신체마저도 통제하는 국가사법 시스템을 비판한다.

예이츠는 1920대의 내전을, 히니는 1968년부터 98년까지의 북아일랜드 사태라는 혼돈의 시대를 경험했다. 이 논문은 이 두 시인의 이 같은 내전에 대한 반 응을 그들의 시를 통해 고찰함을 목적으로 한다. 내전에 대한 예이츠의 반응을 구체적 으로 살펴보면 그는 처음부터 그의 영적 기질과 앵글로 아이리시라는 사회적 정체성에 따라 이룰 수 없는 사랑이나 이상적 과거라는 영적인 유토피아로 도피하려 했고, 아일랜드 공화국 탄생의 밑거름이었던 부활절 봉기에 대해서도 애매한 찬사를 보냈으 며, 내전에 대해서는 환멸과 의도적 회피를 나타냈음을 알 수 있었다. 그러나 그의 후 기 시에서는 낭만적 아일랜드를 옹호하는 앵글로 아이리시의 귀족적인 어조를 찾아낼 수 있었다. 한편 히니의 경우에는 가톨릭 차별에 대해 온건한 저항을 보이지만 다른 한편으로는 북아일랜드 사태의 근원을 찾아내려함과 동시에 화해적인 전략을 추구함 으로써.객관적으로 반응하려 했음을 알 수 있었다. 그러나 예이츠와 히니는 이 같이 해결할 수 없는 내전 상황에서 소수파 예술가이기 때문에 내적 망명인의 길을 택할 수 밖에 없었다는 공통점을 갖고 있다.

캐슬린 백작은 극히 상징적인 극이다. 캐슬린은 부분적으로 앵글로-아 일리쉬 엘리트에 대한 예이츠의 이상을 나타내지만, 그녀에게 부여된 이미지와 역할은 여러 가지 면에서 다른 상징적 면을 나타낸다. 그녀는 국가, 아일랜드인의 정신성, 및 눈 에 보이지 않는 영혼을 나타낸다. 이 극의 중심이 되는 것은 예이츠가 수집한 민간신앙 과 이야기들에 뿌리를 둔 저 세상과 현세와의 교감을 모티브로 하고 있다. 저 세상과의 접촉이 악마의 황금과 영혼을 바꾸는 일로 나타나는데 이는 극적인 정신 상태를 보이는 것이다. 캐슬린이 사람들을 위해서 모든 것을 희생하게 만드는데, 이때 악마들의 역할이 필요하다. 캐슬린은 사람들의 생명에 필수적인 그래서 꼭 지켜져야 하는 것을 상징한다. 동시에 그녀는 동정심이 강하면서 저세상과 근본적으로 맞닿아 있는 영혼을 상징한다.

기존 예이츠 연구에 있어서 극작가로서 예이츠는 주로 아일랜드극 국민운동의 지도자 또는 베케트와 핀터 등에 지대한 영향을 끼친 "유럽" 모더니즘 계열의 극작가로 연구 및 이해되어왔다. 하지만 그 결과 근대 아일랜드 회곡사의 전통 안에서 극작가로서 예이츠의 위치라는 문제는 경시되거나 아일랜드 회곡사의 여백에 기입되는데 그쳐왔다. 본 연구는 현대 아일랜드 회곡사의 중심에 서있는 브라이언 프리엘과 예이츠의 극형식과 주제의 두 축에서 연관 지음으로써 예이츠를 그 전통의 내부로 다시 포섭하려는 2부작 연구의 두 번째이다.

본 논문은 아일랜드 현대극에서 볼 수 있는 여성 재현의 문제를 그레고리 부인, 앤 데브린 그리고 남성 극작가인 스튜어트 파커의 작품 읽기를 통해 살펴보고, 그것의 의미를 다루고 있다. 20세기 아일랜드 연극은 여성과 젠더 문제에 있어 흥미롭고 논쟁적인 문화적 공간이 되어 왔다. 이점에서, 하나의 이상적 수사로서 여성의 재현 문제를 따져보는 것은 아일랜드 문화를 이해하는 데 있어 중요한 의미를 지니고 있다. 논문의 학술적 의의는 아일랜드 연극에 담긴 여성의 목소리, 말 그리고 몸을 해석하고 의미를 드러내 보이는 하나의 방법론을 제공하는데 있다.

예이츠 이후의 시적 자세와 태도를 일견하면, 그의 시가 나중에 쓰여 지는 많은 시의 근거가 된다는 점에서 예이츠 이후의 시인들은 그의 그늘에 있다. 그가 황소고 그들이 개미라는 뜻이 아니라, 하나의 태양이 어떤 지형에 하나의 그림자를 던진다는 뜻이다. 그리고 같은 땅 내의 한 부분에서 일한다는 것은 하나의 개미의 그림자가 보다 큰 다른 개미의 그림자와 겹치거나 우연일치가 되며, 그의 그림자의 윤곽은 앞으로 보다 큰 그림자가 나타날 때까지 기준이 된다는 뜻이다.

이 연구는 아일랜드의 대표적인 극작가 브라이언 프리엘의 흥미로운 작품『몰리 스위니』에 나타난 아일랜드의 포스트콜로니얼적인 요소들을 수발턴의 개념을 적용하여 여성과 남성, 영국과 아일랜드, 제국주의와 식민지, 지배자와 피지배자 등의 권력구조 속에서 파악하려는 시도이다.

현존하는 가장 위대한 아일랜드 극작가인 브라이언 프리엘 비평의 대부 분은 그의 작품을 현대아일랜드의 역사/문화적 맥락에 굳게 위치시키고 그 맥락 아래 서 연구를 진행해왔다. 따라서 이들 프리엘 연구의 의도하지 않았던 결과 중 하나는 그의 작품들을 아일랜드 안에 가두고 지역화시킴으로써 현대희곡의 주변에 머무르게 했다는 점이다. 본 연구는 프리엘의 대표작 중 하나인 「루나사에서 춤을」을 아일랜드 로부터 탈맥락화시키고 브레히트, 테네시 윌리엄즈, 체호프 등의 작가들과 연계시켜 트랜스내셔녈한 관점에서 재조명하려는 시도이다.

이 서평은 위의 3작가의 작품을 최근 아일랜드 소절의 중심적 작품으로 본다.

In Irish peasant dramas, the political movement for the emancipation of the farmers tended to idealize the rural world, which was made a symbol of Ireland and the new nation. In many of these plays Rutherford Mayne showed his interest in rural Ireland. His concern for agrarian matters was not only an intellectual or artistic one. He articulated his professional experiences with the inhabitants of rural Ireland and the redistribution of the land in his plays. The Troth is an historical play. It tries to evoke the mood of need and misery prevailing in the years of Famine. Several allusions give its setting a definite place in Irish history. The murder just seems to be a passionate act of revenge, disconnected from any effective political movement. The violence in Red Turf springs from a different source: the main character is placed in such a humiliating situation that he loses his patience at the climax of the conflict. In each of Rutherford Mayne’s plays the passionate reaction of the main character springs from circumstances which lie outside his own person and which he believes to be unable to cope with. The different motivations of the violent deeds are reflected in the structures of the two dramas. In the exposition of Rutherford Mayne's plays a situation is lined out which is not dramatic itself: The farmers are about to submit to a menace beyond their power; the cruelty of the landlord in one play and the ruthlessness of acquisitive neighbor in the other. In both plays it is the figure of a neighbor who brings the latent conflict to the surface. Passion and violence create a feeling of suffering which borders on tragedy.

This paper examines the ways in which Yeats constructs and idealizes his Anglo-Irish Identity. After bitter disputes over Synge's plays he realized the insoluble opposition between the Irish Catholic and the Anglo-Irish, which meant his failure to unify Ireland through his Celtic Romanticism. He needed to make a new poetics to justify his predicament and to form a new identity. He creates, in his essays and poems, the identity and tradition of the Anglo-Irish from Burke through Swift, Goldsmith, Parnell to Synge and Yeats, the intellectuals who tried to enlighten the native Irish people only to fail and be isolated from them. According to Yeats, the reason the Anglo-Irish intellectuals had to meet the same fate in Ireland is due to the ignorance and sectarian hate of native Catholic Irish people. Although the Anglo-Irish always become victims, their defeat is considered by Yeats to be inescapable and even worthier than success in the reality where ignorance prevails. This is the discourse of tragic heroism. Yeats constructed the identity that is based on the dichotomy between the few Anglo-Irish and the Irish people, by which he attributes culture to the one, and nature to the other. Here culture is supposed to be superior to nature and that sense of superiority rests on the ability to culturalize nature. Yeats connected the culture with breeding which means being cultivated by discipline and education. In writing, it was through his poetics of mask, what he called “the sense of style,” that he could overcome his rage and hate to the mass and futhermore transform them to the higher virtues such as reason, manners and beauty. As the poems dealing with the Anglo-Irish big house and the Thoor Ballylee show, in their tradition what they have inherited is a heroic spirit of overcoming and transforming the adversity each generation has faced. Some critics have asserted Yeats shows de-mystifying recognition when he reveals his ancestors' illicit and unjust violence to the native Irish in the past. But we have to note that it finally leads to justifying his Anglo-Irish violence, for he thought it had been transformed by their overcoming spirit and efforts into order and culture whereas the violence of the Irish mass resulted into disorder and chaos. David Lloyd's opinion needs to be reconsidered in this regard. He praised Yeats's de-mystifying insights in some later poems and asserted, borrowing Paul de Man's terms, his writing is allegorical rather than symbolic. But in the poems he cited Yeats seems to be more interested in heroicizing and idealizing his Anglo-Irish identity and tradition. Yeats's Anglo-Irish identity should be understood as an response to the changed reality and is formed by his peculiar writing or representation.

Republic of Ireland is called a 'saint's country' since more than 90% of population believe in Catholicism. The Irish Catholicism had a great influence on the Irish society and culture by offering the hierarchical order to Irish people's way of life. And also, Catholicism had been a symbol of nationalism and played the role to confirm a sense of national identity. It is also true that since Free State Ireland, Catholicism with the word 'Gaelic' has contributed to making the national identity or 'racy Irish atmosphere'. However, the Irish Church of the 20th century was dedicated neither to spirituality nor the intellectual enhancement of the faith, but to material and social advantage. At the first stage of his writing, Yeats tries to consider Irish Catholicism as holy, combining it with mysticism of theosophy. And also he uses it to strengthen nationalism. However, Catholicism of that time, unlike what Yeats thought, sticks to the practical line, which makes Yeats criticize its materialistic ends. Meanwhile, talking about Heaney, although he accepts its values of contributing to the communal union and he himself is a serious devotee to pilgrimage going to Lough Derg or Station Ireland. Heaney feels at ease because of Catholic's fanaticism and oppression imposed on individuals. The final conclusion of this paper is that although these two poets, Yeats and Heaney, accept that Irish Catholicism has contributed to inspiration of the national patriotism and promoted the modernization of independent Ireland, they criticizes that Irish Catholicism is lacking its artistic spirituality and that it is a trap from which artists are to escape.

This study is on Irish Fairies in Fairy and Folk Tales in Ireland with a foreword by Kathleen Raine edited by Yeats for Korean readers. Nowadays many Korean editions about celtic culture were published after 2000. Fairy and Folk Tales in Ireland is the first American edition by Colin Smythe Limited in 1973. This volume contains Fairy and Folk Tales of Irish Peasantry, first published in 1888, and Irish Fairy Tales, first published in 1892. In this volume Yeats divided Irish Fairies into two great classes: the sociable and solitary and described the characteristics of each fairies, and then collected 8 fairy poems and 16 stories. Every poem and story in this volume is very interesting to me. Yeats is the best selector. The sociable fairies who go about in troops, and quarrel, and make love, much as men and women do, are divided into land fairies and water faires or Merrows(mermaid, merman). The solitary fairies who are nearly all gloomy and terrible in some way. However there are some among them who have light hearts and brave attire. There are the Lepracaun, the Cluricaun, the Far Darrig, the Pooka, the Dullahan, the Banshee. In Irish folk-lore Yeats had come across these fairies many others undiscovered.He had thanks to Patrick Kennedy, Miss Maclintock, Lady Wilde, Mr. Douglas Hyde. Mr. Allingham, Fergusson, and Miss O'Leary. He quoted from their works. His role is a vital linker in a chain of truly apostolic transmission of traditional lore. Evans-Wentz dedicated his first remarkable anthropological work, The Fairy Faith in Celtic Countries(1911) to Yeats and G. Russell(A.E). According to Kathleen Raine, Yeats's own interest in the "Matter of Faerie" was two fold. In part, certainly, it was a literary admiration for the highly formalized art of story-telling, and perhaps for the Irish use of the English language, those idiomatic turns of phase which arise from translation, by Gaelic-speakers, from one language to the other. Yeats who believed in Fairy-Faith to perpetuated in popular form mysterious taught by the Druids see, like A. E and Evans-Wentz, in Tir-na-N'Og, the land of the Sidhe, Ploto's and Plotinus' "yonder" when our souls descend and where they return. They also thought the Fairy-Faith belong to a doctrine of souls. In the Irish fairy poems and stories there are great beliefs in fairies. But Irish people remember the word, 'Be careful, and do not seek too much about fairies.'

There are two contradictory voices in W. B. Yeats concerning Irish nationalism. One is for support of Irish nationalism against the English colonial reign and its accompanying heroic sacrifices for the cause of Ireland. The other one is criticism against excessive demands for sacrifices for the sake of independence of Ireland. Instead of putting the first voice ahead of the second one, Yeats tries to record the two voices at the same time: the voice of justification of sacrifices for nationalism and the voice warning danger in nationalism as a commentary on nationalism. These ambivalent attitudes toward nationalism cannot be understood just as his uncertainties and ambivalent stance he took on Irish politics and his lack of understanding of reality. Rather, Yeats could be said as a faithful recorder of the inner territories of experiences of individuals in everyday life and reality under colonial reign and its countermovement of nationalism. He does not ignore the intimate and latent feelings of individuals (on the side of "body") heard through the loud exclamations of nationalistic causes (on the side of "spirit"). Yeats can be said as a postcolonial poet in so far as he supports Irish nationalism but with a hint of anti-nationalistic attitudes, he also raises questions about danger in postcolonial politics. He cannot be called just a crude propagandist of Irish nationalism. Rather by taking balanced attitudes toward nationalism and excessive sacrifices of individuals through nationalistic causes, Yeats suggests that nationalism could be an ideology and gives a warning sign that postcolonial politics should not forget its dark side.

Globalization has been remaking the world order in terms of world economy, cosmopolitan culture and international social movements. Through globalization, we could enjoy many cultures and communicate between us without any obstacle. On the other hand, it was thought to be the extension of modernization, bringing about many problems. In connection with the expansion of globalization, Samuel Huntington's theory of ' The Clash of Civilizations' is worth mentioning. According to him, the 21th century as de-cold period, is faced with the collision of cultures based on religions. As far as globalization is considered to be the expansion of American culture, the world- wide resistance is already predicted. Especially the countries which had gone through colonization are seeking their own alternatives to the global culture. In connection with this, modern Irish poets are the representatives who are moving toward the ideal glocalism. What I mean by ideal glocalism includes making definition of localism, the appropriation of global power, objectifying the local culture and seeking for the new humanism. The modern Irish poets show the successful model for appropiating 'the third-space' of Homi Bhabha. They explore 'the third-space' of Homi Bhabha as the space of recreation, not that of imitation, by solidifying the local culture and accepting the hybridity at the same time. W.B. Yeats is the first contributor in making differentiation of the Irish culture from the English one. And, also, he tries to make the Irish culture global trend. He recreated hybridity as something new. However, he cannot narrow the cultural gap between the Anglo-Irish as a global power and the Gaelic Catholic as a local power. John Montague begins his career as a critic of Irish local culture. And he chose the exile. However, from him, we can also see the romantic attachment to the local culture through its objectification. Seamus Heaney begins his career as an archeologist of the local culture. However he also experiences the conflict between the local and the global. At last his recognition of hybridity of the local culture brings him to the reconciliation. The last conclusion is the following: the three Irish poets go beyond globalism toward glocalism through redefining and remaking their local culture.

However hard a poet may cry out 'art for art's sake', art works are likely to be evaluated by the political surroundings: a poet is very likely to represent the class he belongs to and to react to the political situation through his own works. A poet who suffers from the turmoil of the transitional period can be a victim of the period in the sense that he can be evaluated irrespective of the real value of his works. This paper is motivated by our current social phenomena that the fanatical nationalism to evacuate the past is also applied to the work of reevaluating writers of the past as well as of the present; interestingly, the same situation happened to Yeats. This paper starts with some hypothesis that the primary reason for the lower reevaluation of Yeats since the birth of Free State until its rebirth as a member of E.U. is that he belonged to the Anglo-Irish Ascendancy. And then this paper investigates identity and contribution of the Anglo-Irish to Irish history. And finally this paper tries to find out how Yeats reacted to the radical change of hegemony especially after Responsibilities. The investigation into his poems leads us to the conviction that in his first stage, he wanted to surrender his half-blooded Englishness to his another half-blooded Irishness. This explains why he tried to dig up the ancient Gaelic culture and to advocate the Gaelic Catholic in his first stage. However we can witness his changing attitude after the Easter Rising: some threat from the majority Catholic fanaticism awakened Yeats's self-recognition as an Anglo-Irish, advocating their class and culture in his poems since Responsibilities. It follows that although Yeats wanted to be an artist for art as such, he could not but seek for reconciliation of two aspects of Ireland, -that is, its religion and ethnicity. Yeats's poetry reflects the shift in the political hegemony and the definition of the Irish identity. My conclusion is as follows. The main reason Yeats's evaluation was going down during the period Ireland was being established as a republic country is that he belonged to the Anglo-Irish Ascendancy, the past power group. Through Yeats's poems we can witness the decline and agony of the Anglo-Irish during the birth of Republic of Ireland. Therefore the historical contribution of the Anglo-Irish is to be reevaluated; Yeats's Literary Revival is also referred to as "a cracked mirror of the servant". By reading again Yeats's poems from the new perspective towards Yeats as an Anglo-Irish, we can see that Yeats's advocacy of the Anglo-Irish was made only after he was threatened by the fanatical Catholic nationalism and that he adhered to the reconciliation of the divided Ireland throughout his life. Meanwhile, this study leads to another question: Is it possible that the art is free from the political pressure or turmoil? In my opinion, although art is not free from that situation, it can only survive when it shines in the filthy tide, searching for the independence and freedom. I think W.B. Yeats is an example.

Ireland abounds in narrative stories, including mythologies, sagas, legends and folktales, handed down through many generations from the ancient pagan period. In Ireland, especially in the western country Sligo where W. B. Yeats spent the better part of his early days, one cannot go far without hearing the mystic stories of pagan gods, nymphs and ghosts. The Irish are very proud of their unique and traditional Celtic culture and they still believe that the supernatural beings haunt everywhere and intervene in their human affairs. Yeats was educated in England and greatly influenced by many English writers and poets. Yeats, however, born with Celtic spirit and encouraged by the patriot John O’Leary, determined to be a national poet. Therefore, he began to write his early romantic narratives and dramatic verses based on the ancient Irish myths and legends, following the two brilliant predecessors Samuel Ferguson and William Allingham. Besides, what is more important than anything else, he usually put his own life and his unrequited love for Maud Gonne by modifying their themes and symbols into the ancient stories. Thus he succeeded in creating utterly new myths much familiar not only to the Irish today but also to the modern people abroad. Hence he was a renowned myth-maker and -modifier of the age