아일랜드와 우리 대한민국은 거의 같은 시기인 20세기 초반에 독립운동이 있었고 또한 20세기 중반이라는 거의 같은 시기에 공화국의 형태로 재탄생했지만, 아직까지 국토의 완전한 회복이 이루어지지 못하고 서로 다른 국가나 체제로 분리되어 있으면서 통합된 한 국가가 되려는 꿈을 버리지 못하고 있다. 아일랜드의 통합은 종교, 인종, 정치 문화적 색채의 차이점 때문에 우리의 통합보다 더 어려울 수도 있겠지만, 다른 한편으로는 800년 이상의 혼종화 현상과 이민 그리고 유럽연합으로의 정체성을 확장시킨 점 때문에 다양성을 수용함에 잘 훈련됨으로써 지역화와 세계화의 조화 속에서 그 갈등이 더 쉽게 풀릴 수도 있다고 생각한다. 대한민국의 경우는 단일 민족, 단일 문화 때문에 더 쉽게 통합될 가능성이 있으나 아일랜드의 경우와 달리 자유와 전제라는 극단적인 이질적 정치체제와 지역적 색채화만을 수용하려는 민족주의가 정치적 봉건화를 지탱시켜 세계화로부터 고립될 수 있는 위험성을 안고 있다. 또 다른 위험요소로는 통합의 과정에서 이루어지는 필수적인 사항으로 탈식민화을 위한 저항과 곧 이어 헤게모니 싸움으로의 내전이 수반될 수 있다. 이 논문을 쓴 동기와 목적은 요사이 회자되나 그 정의가 정립되지 않은 ‘통일’이라는 용어 등을 미래에 바람직하게 정의내릴 필요성을 느꼈기 때문이고 이것을 위해 거의 같은 상황 속에서 바람직하게 발전해가는 아일랜드를 연구해 우리의 문제점을 해결해 보려함에 있다. 아일랜드의 현대 역사는 영국과의 탈 식민전쟁, 그리고 내란으로 이루어지는 시기에 있어 다수인 게일 카톨릭이 과거 지배층인 소수 앵글로 아이리시를 패배시키는 과정, 그 과정에서 수반된 정치와 문화적 측면에서의 민족주의 강화, 그 후에 유럽연합의 일원으로 지역화와 세계화의 조화등으로 정의내릴 수 있겠다. 특히 이 논문에서는 앵글로 아이리시 계급에 속한 예이츠와 회복되지 못한 땅, 북아일랜드의 소수파였던 히니라는 두 시인이 탈식민과 내전에 어떻게 반응했으며 그들이 어떤 식으로 해결을 원했는가를 알아보기 위해 그들의 시를 다시 읽어보고, 한 국가 안에 존재하는 서로 다른 계급의 두 시인이 통합 아일랜드에 대해 지녔던 의견의 차이와 공통점을 찾아내어 우리의 가장 바람직한 통일론을 모색하려 했다. 그런데 두 시인의 가장 큰 공통점은, 종교와 인종면에서 지배, 피지배의 차이가 있을지라도 그 둘 모두 정치, 종교, 인종에 있어 자신들이 속한 공동체의 편견을 극복하고 문화적 공동기반을 다지려 했고 또 시인과 예술의 자유를 추구한 점일 것이다. 한편 그 둘 사이의 차이점은 그 방법론에 있었다. 예를 들면, 그 둘 다 종교와 인종의 편견을 뛰어넘으려는 의도로 조상의 뿌리를 켈트에서 찾을 지라도 아일랜드 자치국의 성립과 더불어 기울어가는 앵글로 아이리시에 속한 예이츠는 처음에는 카톨릭 민족주의 색채를 수용하지만 후기에는 기우는 신교 앵글로-아이리시의 문화를 옹호하려는 균형감각을 고취시키려 했다. 한편 히니는 처음에는 억압받는 북아일랜드의 소수파로서 영국에 저항하는 민족주의 색채로 출발할 지라도 민족주의의 과격성과 카톨릭 공동체가 갖는 편견과 폭력을 배격하고 양심공화국으로의 통합아일랜드를 역설한다. 결론적으로 두 시인은 정치와 종교, 인종의 차이가 강화시킨 배타성보다는 문화적 유대감을 강화시키려는 화해와 상생의 의도를 갖고 있다. 이 둘 모두 지배 문화인 영국을 완전히 배제하지 않으면서 자신들의 정체성을 미국, 유럽으로 확장시켜 그 국수성을 지양해 갔음도 알 수 있었다. 즉, 이 두 시인에게서 민족주의는 문화적 정체성을 확립하는 일에 역점을 둔 것으로 그 과정에서 호전성과 배타성보다는 화해를 통해 식민화에서 파생된 이질성과 혼종을 받아들였기 때문에 지역성과 세계화를 조화시킬 수 있었다. 마지막 결론은 우리의 통합에도 국수적 민족주의와 맞물려 있는 정치적 봉건성으로의 퇴보보다는 지역과 세계화의 기류 속에서 문화의 정체성을 추구함이 선행되어져야 할 것이다.

예이츠는 일생에 걸쳐 그의 문학과 그의 신비주의적 관심을 함께 연결시키려고 노력해왔으며 이는 사후의 세계와 우주의 섭리, 천국과 지옥의 실체 등 인간이 인식하지 못하는 것들에 대한 지적 호기심이며 창조적 탐구의 과정이었다. 이런 신비한 것에 대한 관심의 직접적인 접촉은 물론 블레이크적인 접근이었지만 그 뿌리를 거슬러 올라가면 크게 몇 가지로 분류되는데 이는 철학적 접근, 밀교적 접근, 아일랜드의 신화전설, 낭만주의적 접근, 신학적 접근, 그리고 이 논문에서 언급된 고대 기독교적 접근 등이 그것이다. 기독교적 접근이라고 분류되는 것은 성경에 기초한 교조적인 해석이 아니라 어느 정도 신비주의적으로 기독교의 전통에 따라 보이지 않는 것들, 즉 사후의 영적 경험과 천국과 지옥의 존재의 증명 시도를 의미한다. 예이츠의 기독교 신비주의에 영향을 끼친 두 신학자는 스웨덴보리와 보엠이 있다. 예이츠는 스웨덴보리로부터 주로 사후의 세계에 대해 영향을 받고 있다. 비록 스웨덴보리가 기독교의 교리에서 벗어나지 못했다는 약점에도 불구하고 사후세계의 존재인식과 인간과 신, 혹은 우주가 통신한다는 개념들은 예이츠의 인간영혼의 불멸성과 거대기억의 이론에 직접적인 근거가 된다. 그의 중심사상은 자연계와 영계의 통신이며 이는 우주와 개인, 신과 인간, 사후의 세계와 현세, 귀신과 사람간의 연결이며 합일이다. 영적인 세계는 천당이나 지옥이 아니라 그 중간의 세계이며 죽은 영혼들이 윤회로 다시 태어나거나, 혹은 최종의 목적지에 도달하기 전 잠시 머무는 임시영역이다. 예이츠는 이 영역에서 아니마 문디가 정화되고 거대기억이 형성된다고 보았다. 따라서 이 영적인 세계에서는 우주와 인간의 영혼이 서로 통신하며 실제로 교류할 수 있다는 것이다. 보엠은 좀 더 인간에 관심을 가지고 있다. 그의 인간과 신의 합일사상이 블레이크의 신성인간이며 예이츠의 황금새벽의 이상형이다. 우주의 질서와 조화를 강조한 보엠은 예이츠에게 시적 상상력이 신성과 같은 단계이며 시인은 마치 영매처럼 우주와 영혼, 즉 인간의 세계와 신의 세계를 볼 수 있는 능력을 가진 견자(seer)이며 연결할 수 있는 통신자(correspondences)라는 것을 말해주고 있다.

One of Yeats’s distinguished later poems, “Lapis Lazuli”, which was inspired by a Chinese lapis lazuli carving he received as a gift from a young man of letters, declares the values of artistic activities as a creator as well as preserver of civilizations. In the poem, the poet as a poetic persona constructs vivid vision beyond the real world, breathes in the invisible fragrance that doesn’t really exist and appreciates the unheard melodies from the still object of art. The old ascetics imagined out of the carved still-life meditate upon the tragic scenes beneath their feet from the mountain they ascend towards. Fictitious creatures in a created world of sculpture stare on the real world with old wisdom transfiguring dread. Yeats had not presented all the significant experiences as successfully as he illustrated in this poem. He made the real fictional and in turns, turned the fanciful ideas into real things. The old glittering eyes of those Chinamen in the last stanza are more authentic than the hysterical women who complain with wrong, shrill and cracking voices in the first stanza. The roles of the poet also become mythic as the Chinese do who are distant, old, wise and gay in the hard stone. The poet penetrates into the domain of art work silently and looks back on a poor play of life from the gaiety of his own art. The description of the last stanza in a form of sonnet is much like the controlled carving of a sculptor. And it eternalizes artistic performances by transforming a visual art into a linguistic imagination, and thus by re-creating the scene depicted in the stone in a pleasant manner. As the artist imagines scent and music and movements in the given poetic object, the sculpture attains values stimulating observers’ perception permanently. The Chinese art work with two ascetics and one pupil carrying a musical instrument will continue to mutate in the mind of readers as it receives multiple senses through the poem.

Yeats suffered greatly from the love affair with Maud Gonne but particularly from the contradiction that she manifested. The poet devoted his love and poems to her in vain. But the contradiction is not peculiar or unique problems to Yeats but all men in Western patriarchal tradition. Indeed women for men are figuring simultaneously as madonna and whore, angel and beast. Because the woman has the power to provoke the tumult of desire in man and to gain over him through the desire, the men is afraid of being weaken by her, infected with her feminity and of then showing himself incapable or castrated. The fact that woman from a phallocentric viewpoint appears to be castrated is as reassuring for men as it is alarming. On the one hand, he projects her as lack and sees himself completed in her, thus confirming male hegemony. On the other hand, the so-called castrated woman can reflect back to man a dangerous paradox: if she had been castrated, then his own possession of a penis was in danger by her. In order not to be a paralyzing threat, a woman must have phallic attributes and must become the phallic woman idealized beyond sexuality. The phallic woman is thus fantasized by the man as a defense against castration anxiety. Representation of the phallic woman, he believes, protects him against doubts about his masculinity. Making her like a man conserves the man’s narcissism. The ambiguous nature of the woman is well presented in Yeats’s “Presences.” Here Yeats categorizes the woman as archetypes “harlot,” “child,” and “queen.” And their seductive “rustle of lace or silken stuff” evokes a contradictory femaleness over which he has no rights and which can move rapidly from vulnerable to ruthless, even turning that very vulnerability into a disturbing power over him. In “A Bronze Head,” the woman representative of Maud Gonne remains mysterious and inaccessible, overflowing the ‘images’ and ‘forms’ in which he tries to capture her. In “No Second Troy,” Yeats blames Maud Gonne for her violent political action, perhaps because she cannot be desexualized, idealized, or fetishized fully as he wishes. One of the reasons that Yeats is desperate to prevent the woman from being involved in the politics is that for Yeats the ideal form of a woman would not allow for difference to infiltrate the idealized autonomy. In this sense Yeats prays for his daughter to be the woman with nature of mindless organic spontaneity and for her bridegroom to bring her to a house of custom and ceremony. The idealization of the woman as nature into civilization, however, will not entirely do because it inescapably exposed to the fearful power of death. As Freud argues in Civilization and its Discontents, Eros’s sublimation of the nature into civilization inevitably exhausts its power, which leaves it vulnerable to Thanatos that then threatens to destroy the social order one has so laboriously constructed. The dilemma of sublimation is well explicated in Yeats’s “Mediations in Time of Civil War“ where he perceives the conflict between insistent demands of death drive and the inhibitory requirements of civilization. “Leda and the Swan” shows that the phallic civilization is born together with the brute power of violence and destruction that is to threaten all the social orders. By desexualizing, idealizing, or sublimating the woman, the man may reduce the horror of castration. But his attempt is radically self-defeating and self-undoing, for the more he sublimates her, the more likely she becomes the destroyer of ideal orders. Because of this paradox, the woman remains ontological aphoria to Yeats.

In such poems as “The Dialogue of Self and Soul” and “Vacillation”, the antinomies and oppositions which I have traced in the previous issue of this Journal develop in a very complex manner within the frame of such figures as “the sword” and “the tower”, “brand” and “flaming breath”, “burning leaves” and “green lush foliage moistened with dew.” And they are always posited as implying the antinomies of life and death, remorse and joy, body and soul, earthly life and heaven. In the process of vacillating between “extremities”, Self and Heart which figure not only the body but also the poet’s self declines Soul’s request to “seek out reality, leaving things that seem.” Even though Heart vacillates between antinomies, always looking towards what are opposites to itself, it chooses Homer and his unchristened heart as its example and determines to “live tragically.” By opposing the life of a Swordman to that of a Saint and receiving Homer as the figural example of his art, Yeats puts the foundation that his lyric should be understood as tragedy. “The Gyres” and “Lapis Lazuli”, two tragic lyrics composed in Yeats’s last years, embody his idea of the tragic lyric as well as his tragic world view. In “The Gyres”, the poet, invoking his muse “the old Rocky Face” to look forth and view the world’s overall collapse, “but laugh in tragic joy”. And in “Lapis Lazuli”, the tragic heroes of the Shakespearean tragedy are displayed as the opposing powers or qualities to “the hysterical women” of the modern world. In both of these poems, the poet’s tragic joy or exultation springs from the tragic vision that all things “fall and are built again.” The very eternal recurrence of the battle of antinomies and opposite forces is the source which enacts the poet’s strength and energy to exalt in the midst of despair. Therefore, we may be able to say that the poet’s magical aesthetic which is based on the absolute power of death and the tragic sense of life elevates his lyrics to the height of disruptive tragedy, letting the poet to enact tragic authority at the same time.

예이츠(W. B. Yeats)는 화가를 아버지로, 화가 수업을 받은 시인이었다. 시인으로 성장하면서 문인 못지 않게 여러 화가들과 예술가적 환경에서 생활하였는데, 그의 저술 여기저기에 회화에 대한 언급이 많다. 따라서 그의 시의 형성에는 화가적 시학이 깊이 뿌리내리고 있다고 보아도 틀리지 않다는 전제가 이 논문의 바탕이 된다. 그리고 그의 시작 초기에 결정적 영향을 준 사람이 시인이며 화가인 영국의 대표적 낭만주의 시인인 블래이크(William Blake)이다. 예이츠는 이 시인을 두 번에 걸쳐 편집하고, 곧 이어서 두 편의 글 “회화의 상징성” (1898년)과 “시의 상징성” (1900년)을 발표한다. 이 작업을 통해 예이츠시의 골격이 형성되었다고 해도 과언이 아니다. 이 시기의 시들은 회화의 상징주의와 잘 비교 대조된다. 이 시기 이전의 예이츠는 힘이 부족한 것처럼 보인다. 예이츠시는 본질적으로 고전적인 회화적 형상성을 처음부터 보이나 상징적 특정이 가미되면서 시는 더욱 깊어진다. 예이츠 시의 또 다른 특성은 추상성이다. 이 특성은 예이츠가 의도적으로 시도했다기보다 선구적인 그의 기질이 이런 시를 만들게 했다고 보인다. 추상주의 미술은 아직 등장하지 않았으나, 예이츠는 “추상”이라는 용어를 종종 사용한다. 이러한 회화와 시 읽기에서 다루어지는 작품과 작가는 들라크루와(Delacroix)와 예이츠, 예이츠와 셰익스피어, 「레다와 백조」(Leda and the Swan)와 「비너스와 아도니스」(Venus and Adonis), 블래이크와 예이츠 및 「방울 달린 모자」(The Cap and Bells,) 귀스타브 모로(Gustave Moreau)와 예이츠, 모로의 회화작품들, 「쿨 장원의 야생 백조」(The Wild Swans at Coole)와 후기인상파 화가들 및 모로, 예이츠와 화가 시인 컴밍스(e e cummings) 등이다.

일본을 대표하는 고전연극 노(能)가 서양에 소개되기 시작한 것은 일본이 서양문물을 적극적으로 받아들이기 시작한 19세기말부터였다. 일본과 서양과의 교류가 활발해지면서 노는 번역을 통해 서양에 알려지게 되었는데, 이 때 소개된 많은 번역 가운데 특히 유명한 것이 페놀로사․파운드의 번역이다. 여기에 수록된 작품들은 학문적 성과를 토대로 한 정확한 번역과는 거리가 멀지만, 시극(詩劇)으로서의 노의 문학성을 알리는데 그 어느 번역집 보다 기여한 바가 크다. 노는 지금으로부터 약 600년 전, 간아미(觀阿彌 1333-1384), 제아미(世阿彌 1363-1443) 부자(父子)에 의해 대성되었다. 이들에 의해 노는 종래의 민간예능의 제요소들을 흡수하면서 당시 지배계급의 미의식을 만족시킬 수 있는 상징적이며 귀족적인 극예술로 비약적으로 성장했다. 그러한 과정에서 제아미는 무겐노(夢幻能)라고 하는 노 특유의 극형식을 창출하였는데, 그 후 많은 작품들이 이 형식을 빌어 쓰여지게 되었다. 무겐노의 극구성을 보면, 정처 없이 떠도는 승려가 긴 여행 끝에 어느 마을에 도착하는 것으로 극은 시작된다. 이 승려 앞에 정체를 알 수 없는 여자 또는 남자가 나타나 마을에 전해 내려오는 이야기를 들려준다. 이야기가 진행됨에 따라 화자(話者)가 바로 이야기 속의 주인공임이 밝혀지고, 자신의 정체를 밝히고 일단 모습을 감춘 주인공은 극의 후반에서는 생전의 모습으로 나타나 과거를 재현하고 춤을 춘다. 현세에 대한 미련, 추억들이 이들의 이른바 성불(成佛)을 막고 이승에서 떠돌게 하는 것이다. 승려는 이 영혼이 이승과의 인연을 끊을 수 있도록 염불을 드리고 이에 유령은 성불하게 된다. 작품에 따라서는 유령이 끝내 성불하지 못하고 영원히 이승을 방황하는 채로 끝나는 경우도 있다. 파운드의 소개에 의해 서양에 널리 알려지게 된 노는 많은 예술가들의 주목을 받게 되는데, 그 중에서도 예이츠는 노에 남다른 관심을 가지고 그의 작품 속에 노의 주제나 기법 등을 수용한 것으로 유명하다. 예이츠가 말년에 이르기까지 깊은 관심을 보인 것은 다름아닌 무겐노였다. 과거와 현재를 자유로이 넘나들며 자연계와 초자연계의 교류를 그리는 무겐노는 예이츠의 예술적 상상력을 자극하여 그가 오랜 기간 모색해왔던 아일랜드의 전승․신화의 세계를 극화하는 방법에 새로운 단서를 제공해 주었던 것이다. 본고는 파운드와 예이츠가 무겐노 형식으로 쓴 작품 ｢트리스탄｣(1916)과 ｢연옥｣(1939)을 중심으로 노가 이들의 작품에 끼친 영향에 대해 살펴보았다.

In this study, I trace out the influence of woman’s images on Yeats in biographical and feministic point of view. For Yeats, woman was the major poetic motif and source of inspiration; meeting, interacting, and parting with women gave him a motive for poems and deepened philosophy as well as his literary view. As Yeats said in his Essays and Introductions, he "writes of his personal life, in his finest work out of its tragedy, whatever it be, remorse, lost love, or mere loneliness,” and "would die of loneliness but for women.” Indeed, woman for Yeats is the focal point of various themes such as praise of heroic and ideal beauty, despair caused by unrequited love, friendship, maternal love etc. Among many women who influenced Yeats, Maud Gonne was the most important figure. It seems that she was a real feminist who tried to seek a dignified life and ideal as a woman, cultivating her identity and soul rather than being a common woman who is financially and physically subject to man and to cultivate outward appearance to draw man's attention. Even though not accepting Yeats's love, she was not an extreme feminist who denied the entire role and realm of man and supported just woman's opinion and benefits. Instead she seemed to be a moderate feminist who tried to find the real freedom and hope for the Irish women and children who suffered from the dignity and violence of a patriarchal husband as well as chronic poverty. Yeats’s painful but productive relationship with Maud Gonne determined his favor for certain type of women with masculinity rather than with a passive, complaisant, and traditional beauty. As in his fascination of Niam suggested, Yeats liked to praise beautiful women who have masculinity, and he took a courtly love attitude to receive their love. Therefore, he tried to write poems which needed great labour like a woman’s childbirth and praise women of a masculine spirit. Yet Maud Gonne’s constant decline of his suit and radical political inclination, and his depressed Libido made him deeply feel the pain caused by such a mannish woman. Especially, the sudden confession of her past love with Millevoye and her marriage with MacBride gave him a great shock and changed his view of woman. Now he instead dreamed of living a comfortable life with a woman who has traditional feminine nature. At last, Yeats got married to Hyde-Lees with such feminine factors, only to find that her charm and sexual satisfaction didn’t last long. After the conflict with Maud Gonne in 1919, Yeats came to emphasize conservative view of woman, insisting that woman should live in a pure blessing and give up her opinionated mind. He asserted that woman with perfect beauty could be happy only when she made herself beautiful and played a faithful role as man’s supporter. In this period, Maud Gonne’s images was painted dark in his poems; ‘intellectual hatred’, ‘opinionated mind’, and ‘a woman who lost the Horn of Plenty’. But such dark images soon disappeared. Yeats again longed for his lost love, Maud Gonne. However he could not escape from the conflicts between body and soul, ideal and reality. Such a dilemma made him pay attention to Unity of Being, the harmonious union of body and soul, and create his persona, Crazy Jane. Yeats's views of woman suffer many changes through his earlier, middle and later poems. It can be said that his views of woman are expressed according to the increase or decrease in femininity or masculinity inherent within Yeats’s self, the influence of his suppressed libido, and his attitude toward Irish politics. However it can’t be denied that woman was the continuous motif and inspiration of his poems.

Baile and Aillinn, based on a pagan myth of ancient Ireland, is a long narrative poem which expresses Yeats’s private love story along with his deep interest in his fatherland and its national literature. Naturally, Yeats enlarged the simple plot of the story which tells about the two lovers’ death and their going to live in Aengus’s land among the dead. He also partly created his own private myth in order to transmit his many-folded intent. By clothing each mythical character with a role and symbol appropriate for his purpose, he succeeded in making his poem overcome the limitation of private utterance and making it a poem with both individuality and universality. The death of Baile and Aillinn has a duplicate symbolic meaning. Firstly, their death is an inevitable ritual process to get an eternal beatitude through the union after death and a sort of sublimation of a tragic love, in which we can glimpse at the poet’s plaintive love for Gonne. Secondly, their death is a kind of ritual murder symbolizing a Messianism of the Irish desiring for liberation from inveterate poverty and oppression over time. In conclusion, Baile and Aillinn is an excellent piece showing Yeats’s seasoned poetic technique of creating a poem with new meaning through mythologizing with great subtlety not only his own autobiographical elements but also the national feelings of the Irish people.

Yeats was interested in imagination as he was familiar with the function and value of imagination. For him, Imagination is a kind of creative principle; it is like an almighty divine god. By using and developing the power of imagination we can do anything. The ultimate aim of imagination is to create a paradise in this world from now to eternity. It is, however, too difficult to make such images, as we wish to. Though difficult, it is not impossible to do so. According to Bergson, the possible and the real are not essentially different qualities; they are originally the same attributes; furthermore, all material things are to be formed by the gathering together of images―the world of imagination consists of numerous images. Thus, we, with the marvellous power of imagination, can have the infinite power and intelligence, which resemble those of God. Nonetheless, we are sad for many human conditions that restrict us. But Yeats praises the human souls that overcome such conditions with full arduous life. As he awakens mentally, he comes to find the concept of taking pains -labor-; he needs to make constant efforts to realize the imagination as he wants it, wholeheartedly. To Yeats, such a hard process of living itself is man's sublimity. He concludes that in struggling against the terrible condition of life man will come closer to the attributes of God.

“Politics,” the last of W. B. Yeats’s Collected Poems (Richard Finneran’s New Edition), ends with the poet's wish for fulfillment of sexual desire and love: “But O that I were young again / And held her in my arms.” Yeats wrote this poem in May 1938, eight months before his death. In another poem, “A Prayer for Old Age,” written in 1934, the poet prays that he “may seem . . . A foolish, passionate man.” In these and other poems of Yeats’s last years, “lust and rage” really seem to “dance attendance upon [his] old age” and “spur [him] into song” (“The Spur”). This paper is an attempt to understand the last years of Yeats’s life and poetry in terms of sexuality and love. The first part of this paper discusses the Steinach operation which Yeats underwent in 1934, when he was 68 years old. Although it is uncertain that the operation had brought the poet the expected “second puberty,” it seems to have had an psychologically positive effect upon his writing of poetry. During the last five years after the operation, Yeats wrote almost fifty poems, which is surprising number considering his old age and precarious health. In this part of the paper, the present writer reads some poems in which the poet's feeling and thought about sexuality and love in these final years of his life are most clearly expressed: “A Prayer for Old Age,” “The Spur,” “The Wild Old Wicked Man,” and the sequence of “Supernatural Songs.” After the operation Yeats met Margot Ruddock, Dorothy Wellesley, Ethel Mannin, and Edith Shackleton Heald, all of them being young, pretty, and intelligent women. They were poets (Ruddock and Wellesley), a novelist (Mannin), and a journalist (Heald). The second part of this paper deals with the poet’s meetings with these women, and reads the poems which are based upon, and reveal the nature of, their relations: “Margot,” “Sweet Dancer,” “A Crazed Girl,” “To Dorothy Wellesley,” and “The Three Bushes.”

The focus of study in this paper is put on the comparison of symbolism manifested in the world of W. B. Yeats’ poetry and the thoughts of Master Won-hyo.. The comparing works include the identification of their understanding ways of life. The symbols in common to bridge W. B. Yeats and Master Won-hyo are, for instance, circle, cone, cycle, sphere, spiral, wheel, vehicle, etc. Such a sign symbolizes a round thing, in another expression, the world or the cosmos where man belongs to. The phenomenological world or the cosmos by oriental thoughts is represented as the 28 phases of the moon, ranging from the dark moon(objectivity) to the full moon(subjectivity), which according to W. B. Yeats’ theory are identified the same kinds of character of man. Won-hyo(元曉, 617～686), a life-long friend of another Buddhist Master Ui-sang., insisted on the necessity for every living being to return to the foundation of the One Mind(一心), which is the original state of being, in another words, or “Ultimate Reality” to which every living being has to return. The Hwa-yen Sutra(華嚴經), a rare scripture of Mahayana Buddhism(大乘佛敎), emphasizes that the Ultimate Reality is the Source of One Mind of Won-hyo. We can say that Mahayana Buddhism teaches every living being the way to return to the world of the Ultimate Reality by great vehicle of "Mahayana"(大乘) in sanskrit. Another principle of Hwa-yen philosophy may be expressed as "All in one, one in all. One is all, all is one"(一中一切一切中一, 一卽一切一切卽一). "The Six Aspects"(六相) is interpretated by the principle. The mutual relationships are harmonized between the whole and a part, between the unity of the whole and the diversity of the part, and between the completion of the whole and the self-denial of the part. The One Mind is synonymous with the Great Vehicle with great wheels, which return to the Source of One Mind, the original state of being, or the Ultimate Reality( or Nirvana). The meaning of the One Mind may be expanded to the synonym of the existential world or the cosmos, at the center of which the One Mind lies. Accordingly, The One Mind, the Great Vehicle or Great Wheel and the World has a similar analogy, which make a system of symbolism, so called “Yeatsian gyre theory.” Yeats imagined a spiral, which he preferred to call a gyre) or whirling cone. Then two such cones were drawn and considered to pass like the human soul through a cycle from subjectivity to objectivity. These cones were imagined as interpenetrating, whirling around inside one another, one subjective, the other objective. The cones were not restricted to symbolizing objectivity and subjectivity. They were beauty and truth, value and fact, particular and universal, quality and quantity, abstract and concrete, and the living and the dead. Yeats thought that he had discovered in the figure of interpenetrating gyres the archetypal pattern which is mirrored and remirrored by all life, by all movements of civilization or mind or nature. Man or movement is conceived of as moving from left to right and then from right to left. No sooner is the fullest expansion of the objective cone reached than the counter-movement towards the fullest expansion of the subjective cone begins. These movements slide to the 28 phases of the moon. The dark moon, in the course of wane and wax sways to the full moon. The different 28 patterns of the moon is mirrored by all life or mind, ranging from the highest state of subjective mind(the 15th phase: the full moon) to the highest cast of objective mind(the 1st phase; the dark moon). In the long run, the world which Won-hyo and Yeats seek for as an ideal space of mind is a unified one, into which melted are the binominal opposites such as objectivity and subjectivity, the sacred and the profane, the bishop and Jane, fair and foul, the dancer and the dance, beauty and truth, value and fact, particular and universal, quality and quantity, abstract and concrete, and the living and the dead.

Most of Yeats’s works are composed of antitheses which are defined by their rhetoric, form, tone and thematic motifs. If the antitheses are Yeats’s central means of perceiving and interpreting the world, what kinds of experience are posited at the center of his life, and in what way and manner are his conceptions of “unity of being” and “unity of culture” connected with his experience of “tragic joy”? This essay attempts to approach the basic frame of Yeats's mind which perceives and interprets the world as composed of contraries, antinomies and antitheses. In such context, Yeats's idea and experience of tragedy are shown to be constructed ideologically in the situation that is divided by the two classes, namely the declining Anglo-Irish Protestant and the powerfully ascending Catholic middle classes. Yeats’s conception and experience of tragedy are connected with what Michel Foucault calls “the absolute power of death”. Yeats thinks that if the modern poet could enact the poetic authority, he should be able to embody the ancient forms of power. Hence his ideology of tragedy and authority which leads him to enact the oral tradition of ancient magical arts. Yeats thinks that, through the poetic mode of ancient magical arts, modern lyric poet can enact the absolute power of death, breaking the comedic power of modern individualism. Yeats's ideology of tragedy and authority, however, is in constant contradiction with “the life-administering power” of modern world. In spite of his desire to enact the tragic power of ancient bard, the space of his later lyrics remains the complex site of ideological conflicts between the residual forms of traditional Anglo-Irish culture and the dominant cultural forms of modern individualism. (The second part of this essay will be continued in the next issue)

예이츠의 시는 안정과 변화라는 상반되는 요소를 매개체로 사용하여 시인의 시적 심미주의를 표현함으로 시 자체의 자율적이고 능동적인 의미를 강화시키고 있다. 특히 예이츠의 상반적인 시적 표현은 일시적인 단순한 언어 유희가 아니고, 초기 시부터 마지막 후기 시까지 일관적으로 사용되어지고 있다. 상반적인 언어 표현은 사실과 허구, 실체와 상상, 역사와 예언적 계시, 가시적인 것과 불가시적인 것, 과학과 종교, 진실과 신화, 확실성과 애매 모호함, 높은 것과 낮은 것, 그리고 무색과 유색 등으로 대조되어서, 서로 유기적인 상호작용을 통해 새로운 차원의 심미주의적 의미를 자생시키고 있다. 이러한 상반된 언어 표현의 유기적 상호 작용은 “The Meditation of the Old Fisherman”부터 “The Second Coming”에 이르기까지 매개체로 이용되면서 심미주의적인 시적 의미를 확장시켜서 이성과 과학과 합리주의를 초월한 시의 철학적, 신비적, 예술적, 종교적 의미로 자전시키는데 결정적인 역할을 한다.

예이츠에게 있어 아니마 문디, 혹은 세계영의 사상은 여러 가지 역할을 하고 있으며 그중 가장 중요하고 기본적인 것은 역시 작품의 배경으로서의 역할일 것이다. 특히 그의 연극작품들에 나타나고 있는 아니마 문디는 아일랜드적 배경들과 함께 작품과 관객(혹은 독자)들에게 공통적인 감정을 이입시켜 연결하게 해준다. 그의 연극적인 배경이 되는 신화적 요소들과 현실과 환상이 공존하는 공간적 배경들, 삶과 죽음의 세계와 그 중간의 세계가 윤회적으로 나타나는 시간적 배경들은 모두 작가와 그의 독자들에게 모두 친숙한 세계이다. 이런 소재들과 사건들을 다루면서 예이츠는 그의 민족주의적 연극이 관객들에게 줄 수 있는 메시지를 스스로 조절할 수 있었으며, 관객들이 작가의 의도를 알아차리는 데는 별 문제가 없어 보인다. 이 글에서는 예이츠의 연극 열 편에 등장하는 켈트적인 신비와 상징을 중심으로 아일랜드인들이 모두 공유하는 집단적인 대기억들이 조국의 문화적 동질성을 회복시키며 정치적 종교적 분열을 치료하여 민족적인 통일을 이루어내기 위하여 직접적으로 또 간접적으로 사용되었다는 것을 밝힘으로써 세계영의 사상이 이론에 치우친 허황된 개념이 아니라 국민들의 의식속에 실재로 존재하고 있다는 것을 밝히고자한다. 물론 공연을 염두에 두고 쓰여졌으며 민족주의적인 메시지를 담고있다는 목적이 뚜렷하고 또 무대공연의 제약이 있기에 시에서처럼 심오한 의미를 전달하기는 어렵지만, 이들 연극에서 신비한 과거의 세계가 원형으로 사용되어 현재와 미래를 동일시하게 해주고 있음을 잘 알 수 있다.

예이츠의 세계관 및 시적 사상의 기조는 감정 즉 엄밀히 말해서 정서에서 발생된 상상을 통하여 천체 전우주의 영원불변의 세계를 이해하는 것이다. 따라서 각 개인은 이 불변체의 각 구성분자가 되면 시간, 공간 나아가서 인생 또는 세상의 모든 현상형체는 개인자체에서 출발한다는 논점에 귀결된다고 보는 것이다. 따라서 모든 성좌를 내포하고 있는 전 우주는 개인을 그 축으로 하여 움직이는 운동체로서 어디까지나 개인자체가 곧 우주의 전부 (The Whole)가 된다고 보았으니 예이츠는 이 전부인 동시에 이 전부를 움직이는 힘인 동시에 생명의 나무 (The Tree of Life)인 것이다. 따라서 예이츠는 자기 자신을 불사조라고 상상하기까지 되었고 마침내 주관주의 및 개인주의사상의 시인이라 널리 평가되고 있다. 예이츠의 문학적 생애는 작품의 성질과 특징에 따라 초기와 후기로 나뉘어진다. 즉 저작전집 (The Collected Works in Verse and Prose in Eight Volumes)이 출판된 1908년을 경계로 한 전후 2기다. 예이츠의 문학적 생애의 전기 (1887-1908)의 20년은 다양하고 화려한 활동기였으며 이때에 그는 많은 시, 극, 산문의 제작 및 교정서를 발간하여 영국문단에서 확고한 위치를 차지하였다. 예이츠의 작품은 전후 일관하여 볼 때 켈트종족의 과거에 집착하여 과거를 승화하는 환상 우수 및 초현세적 고독의 희열을 추구하는 도피사상이 고상한 어조로 표현되어 있음이 그 중요한 특징이라 볼 수 있다. 또한 예이츠의 켈트적 성품은 시대정신의 영향하에 그를 예술지상주의의 작가 및 국민문학의 지도자가 되게 하였으며 그는 신비사상을 심취하여 그의 예술의 기저를 삼았다. 그러나 그의 켈트적 민족성의 중흥을 성립하고 있는 것은 실로 뛰어난 감정이라 볼 수 있으며 아울러 예이츠의 신비사상이나 상징주의는 감정 및 감정에 기반을 둔 상상에서 기인되었다고 본다.

Yeats established a contact with the spoken word and learned to use it so that he could express the reality and acquire masculinity under the influence of his participation in Abbey Theatre. And he, dramatizing himself, would express the life of the individual person with long and objective points of view, of which he was to follow simple methods of dialogue and debate. In his some later poems, Yeats adopts these methods and suggests his subjects through some persona of ‘Self,’ ‘Soul,’ ‘Robartes,’ ‘dancer,’ ‘He’ and ‘She.’ His concerns in this form are not to direct confess of his mind or feeling but to give different voices and opinions on his poetic subject. Not as his early poetic voices which represent poet's own subjectivity, these persona have voices of various opinions and show some conflicts each other in the text so that the reader should refer to all their positions and would be led to his or her own conclusion on the debate. The other significance of the debate form in Yeats's poetry is the participation of women persona and her role as a speaker of Yeats's attitudes on his writing. Different from the other male modernists, Yeats adopts the voice of a woman, submits himself to the female perspective and distances himself from the poetic situations and the subjects intended to suggest in his works. In other words, Yeats seeks poetic impersonality by speaking in female persona. Yeats’s use of the dialogue and debate between the persona of different experiences and different gender reinforces his attempt to displace his early romantic faerly landers and respond to his urgent subjects-the real world matters. With this method he portrays himself as a being caught between his social identity and his permanent personality, which grants him an achievement of the deeper wisdom into the human life and personality.

W. B. Yeats is one of the most important philosophical poets who tried to incorporate history, society, art, and literature in their poems. He proved that the human desire to create the 'Self' through the literature was possible. The developmental process of his literature shows a long way to his destination : freedom of the human soul. It was natural that he has accepted various Eastern and Western philosophies to achieve his goal. Yeats utilized the Indian thoughts in his works and he did it through his own ways. Moreover, he popularized the Indians spiritual life in his works. He tried hard to give an organic unity to his whole works. Especially, he expressed the results of his efforts along his life for his desire for the spirit and its freedom in a raw. It was an unavoidable thing to accept the Oriental thoughts to him, and they effected so much to him to remain in his spiritual world. Among them there was a Cyclical System from the Indian philosophy as a mystic experience to resolve the conflict. The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the influences of Eastern philosophy on Yeats. Secondly, the developmental process of Cycle whose completed forms, such as a gyre or a circle, can be found in A Vision, are traced through the analysis of Yeats’s verse. The ultimate role of the system is the realization of the Unity of Being, which is the state of harmony and unity through the conflicts of the opposites such as life and death, subjectivity and objectivity, and soul and body, etc.

W. B. Yeats poetic purpose is to advocate to Sophia who is suffering in the world with mankind as a hidden God and the feminine principle in Christian Gnostic myth. He searched for two of Sophia’s aspects: Mother and Daughter Sophia. Yeats believed that Mother Sophia abodes in heaven. On the other hand, Daughter Sophia is suffering in the world, and he thought himself as a chosen man of the sole priest for Daughter Sophia. Yeats tried to dedicate his life for Daughter Sophia from his early rose poetry. The immortal rose is a symbol of Helen of Troy or Countess Cathleen who sacrificed her life for rescuing her people’s souls. Yeats also waited for the time of the recovery of Sophia’s glory again. The decided time is coming to follow the theory of the Gyres in A Vision. After dominating the masculine gyre for 2000 years, the androcentric society will disappear by returning to the feminine gyre. Yeats thought the new age would be dominated by Sophia who was not only feminine but androgynous. Yeats also called the new age a ‘rosy peace’ which is a symbol of ’Unity of Being’ and the immortal world. Yeats was eager to search for achieving ‘Unity of Being’ by uniting with Sophia. As he got older, he was a passionate old man who still indulged in Sophia. Yeats believed in Sophia as a hidden and defeated god. But when decided time comes, Sophia will be recovered her glory. In “The second coming,” Sophia as an androgynous god, is symbolized by the sphinx. Yeats often used to the sphinx image to explain Sophia. Especially, the sphinx is identified with the Judge of the Last Judgement. It is important to the symbol of Sphinx’s eyes; ‘a blank and pitiless as the sun.’ The sun symbolizes God’s fury of the Last Judgement as well as the unchangeable supernatural world. Sphinx’s eyes of the sun image are compared with the cat’s eyes of the moon. The moon is a symbol of the wheel of reincarnation and mortal world. In A Vision, the moon has 28 aspects as a symbol of the wheel of reincarnation. Sophia has controlled the souls after death by following the rules of the moon’s 28 aspects. Yeats symbolized Sophia as the Judge of all souls by portraying her as a ‘cook.’ On the contrary, when the sphinx comes, there will be no more the moon’s changeable aspects in the world. Therefore, although the sphinx looks like an evil image, it is only a symbol of Sophia. Yeats always wanted to be Sophia’s sole priest. So he was a Christian Gnostic priest just as W. Blake. In fact, he identified with Ribh who was his poetic hero as well as the Christian Gnostic priest. God’s fury and the rough sphinx image are paradoxical symbols of the God’s glory and the age of the rosy peace. The sphinx’s ‘pitiless eye’ is connected with the horseman’s ‘cold eye’ on his epitaph. The ‘cold eye’ is symbolized to achieve Yeats’s final poetic purpose, ‘Unity of Being.’ That is, the symbol suggested that Yeats would be a Daimon after his death.