Paying critical attention to the concept of ‘transportation’ and ‘circulation’, this essay examines the collection status of vocabulary in bilingual dictionaries of various languages in early-modern East Asia. By doing so, it follows the trajectory of translingual practice, and clarifies a part of the transition of modern East Asian civilization. The research method in this study is as follows. First, it confirms the concepts of ‘交通 (kotsu, kyothong)’ and ‘流通 (ryutsu, yuthong)’ by defining a monolingual dictionary in Japanese and Korean. Next, it selects words representing each concept after investigating the translation (English) of a modern Japanese-English dictionary and Korean-English dictionary. The translated words corresponding to those representing the concepts are extracted from some major early-modern bilingual dictionaries of Japanese and Korean. It, then, analyzes the aspect of changes from the late 19th century to the early 20th century by looking into the translations of those extracted (Japanese and Korean). Based on the above-mentioned research and analysis, it reveals significant developmental characteristics in translating the concept of ‘transportation’ and ‘circulation’ in East Asia.

이 글은 근ㆍ현대 한국불교 예송의례의 아우라에 대해 전승과 변용을 변 증법적으로 고찰한 논문이다. 이를 위해 먼저 의례서적의 편찬 방식 등을 기준으로, 대각교의식과 석문의범 등이 편찬된 20세기 초중반을 근대 로, 불교의식을 현대와 같은 방식으로 편찬하기 시작한 20세기 중후반을 현 대로 상정하고 논의를 전개하였다. 현행 조석의 7정례는 대웅전에 모신 존상과 큰 관련이 없는, 주전에서의 전통 예참의식 형태로서, 사찰의 전 대중이 참여하는 일상의례인데, 근대불 교시기에 유사한 양태로 성립되기 시작하여 점차 변형을 겪으며 현대불교시 기에 이르러 현행 양태로 변용되었다. 7정례가 한국불교사찰에 널리 보급된 것은 사실이라고 할 수 있지만 한국의 모든 사찰에서 동일하게 설행되는 의 식이라고 할 수는 없을 것 같다. 사찰의 새벽을 알리는 도량석이 현재와 같 이 활용된 시기와 의미 등을 단정할 수는 없으나, 야간에 행해지는 시식(施 食) 의식의 결계(結界)에 대(對)되는 의식이라고 할 수 있다. 우연의 일치 일지 모르지만 현재 법성게가 ‘도량석’에서 주로 염송되는데, 이는 시식의식 에 초대된 존재들이[諸法] 본래의 붓다[名爲佛]이고 그곳으로 돌아가라는 의미라고 할 수 있으므로, 그 의미와 역할이 묘하게 부합된다. 범종각의 사 물인 법기들은 식당에서 출가 승려들이 음식을 먹을 때 울리던 것으로, 사 찰에 재승(齋僧: 승려공양)이 들어왔을 때 야외에서 식당을 차리고 음식을 먹는 행위를 지휘하는 지휘소와 같은 역할을 하는 유나소인 종루(鐘樓)에서 활용되게 되어 종각에 모이게 되었다. 이 같은 역사 속에 예경과 송주의 도 량석이나 종각의 사물은 본래 의미를 잃어버렸으나 각 의식과 사물은 탄생 의 연기를 환기하여 깨달음을 되새기는 역할을 하고 있다고 보인다.

Studies of the Chinese neologisms zōngjiào 宗教 and zhéxué 哲學 have been pursued along etymological and historical lines, focusing on works of particular intellectuals that employed these terms. I argue that these methods are limited in their explanatory power to indicate how these words become dominant terms representing new academic disciplines in 20th century China. There is a need to demonstrate how the these terms invoked new interests shaping East Asian intellectuals’ identities in differing 19th and 20th century cultural contexts. A dialectical cultural transformation is involved, as well as institutionalization processes reflecting the values associated with these neologisms. These Chinese words become dominant terms precisely because there was a new set of experiences which older terms could not articulate. Zōngjiào and zhéxué, therefore, not only emerged from external cultural sources, but also represented a new mentality among Chinese intellectuals involved in modern transformations of post-traditional Chinese cultures.

This study was conducted on the premise that plan types of the public residential houses proposed after the 1945 implicatively showed the developing process of the modern housing. The formal characteristics created through the developing process were analyzed in Micro-Historically. Moreover, by providing a new viewpoint on the changes of the residential houses that occurred around 1945, we tried to provide the fundamental research background for the research on the developing processes of the future housing cultures. The research pursued mainly on the major spaces that became the modern change indices of housing plan changes from the traditional housings in 1940s to the modern housings such as the master bedrooms(An-Bang), kitchen, the main floored-space(Maru), and the secondary bedroom (Kune-Bang). The major experimental subjects are the 87 public residential plan types designed and supplied by the Korea Housing Cooperation in between 1945 and 1970. The study synthesized the developing process of the public residential houses from the traditional residential houses in 1940s through modern situation and intrusion of foreign housing cultures. Following results were derived from the study: First, various and experimental housing plan types had been proposed as public residential houses since 1945. Among them, the plan having the main floored-space(Maru) were the representative type of public residential houses and various series of houses were constructed based on this type. Second, the main floored-space(Maru) type had continued building connection order of the R-M-R that were used in the traditional houses. On the other hand, with decomposition of connecting ring between the main floored-space(Maru) and the kitchen, rationalization of women circulations and introduction of family-centered spaces had been resolved the demands of modern society. It had greate effect on settlement of the current double-row Maru plan type. Third, in Korea most of plan types for the public residential houses were proposed in between 1945 and 1965. Forth, the location of kitchen and relation between Maru and the master bedroom were arranged visually on the corner and center of the rear row with the micro change characteristics of the public residential houses. In this process, the front row was similar with traditional residential houses but the rear row was differentiated and developed with expansion of Maru and Ondol rooms, increase of closet spaces, and introduction of kitchen that divided spaces for sleeping and eating.

본 연구는 항구도시 칭다오가 20세기 전반에 근대도시로 형성되는 과정에 관한 연구이다. 칭다오의 근대도시화 과정은 동아시아 항구도시의 공통점을 보여주며 강대국 등 정치적 지배 세력에 의해 4개 시기로 구분된다. 첫 번째 독일 점령기 동안에는 칭다오의 구도심 영역이 집중적으로 형성되었다. 두 번째 일본 1차 점령기 동안 칭다오의 도심 영역은 북쪽과 동쪽으로 확장되어 기존 도심의 북쪽으로 금융 및 업무시설이 형성되었고 그 북쪽에서 대항에 이르는 지역에는 공업지역이 넓게 형성되었다. 세 번째 북양군벌 및 국민당 통치기 동안 칭다오는 국제적인 상업과 금융, 휴양도시로서 급격하게 확장되었다. 네 번째 일본 2차 점령기 동안 건축 활동은 활발하지 못했으며 이 기간 동안 일본은 중국 대륙 침략의 관문으로서 칭다오를 활용하고자 했다.