자유주의 페미니즘의 선구적 사상가로 불리는 존 스튜어트 밀은 여성 의 종속 현상은 여성에 대한 사회적 억압과 잘못된 교육 때문이라고 보 았다. 여성과 남성은 자라나는 환경이 다르기 때문에 능력에도 차이가 나타나므로 여성에게도 많은 선택의 자유와 남성과 동등한 기회가 주어 진다면 여성도 자신의 잠재적인 능력을 발휘할 수 있다고 보았다. 밀은 말과 행동 사이에 아무런 갈등을 보이지 않는 사상가로서 여성의 지위 향상을 위한 노력을 자신의 저서와 실제 정치를 통해서 전개 시켜 나간 최초의 정치가이기도 하다. 이러한 밀의 주장은 여성만을 위한 것이 아 니라 인류 전체의 발전을 위해서도 필요한 것이다. 그러나 밀의 주장은 선택된 소수의 여성들에게 선거권을 주고 소수의 여성들에 대한 교육의 확대에 관심을 두었기 때문에 중산층 여성을 중심으로 한 엘리트주의라 는 비판을 받기도 한다. 하지만 19세기 서구의 시대적 상황을 고려할 때 밀의 주장은 매우 혁신적인 주장이었고 여성문제에 대한 가장 근본적인 문제를 다루었다는 측면에서 현재의 양성평등 실현에도 지대한 영향을 미쳤다고 평가할 수 있다.

본 논문은 동아프리카 잔지바르계 출신 영국 디아스포라 예술가인 루바이나 히미드의 작품에 관한 것으로, 그녀의 작품에 드러난 아프리카 디아스포라와 식민주의, 인종주의와 노예제도, 폭력과 차별의 역사를 흑인 예술 운동과 흑인 페미니즘의 관점에서 비평적으로 살펴본다. 히미드 는 1980년대 영국 흑인 예술 운동의 선구자인 중 한 명으로, 문화와 미디어에서 유색인종이 타자 화되고, 역사에서 배제되는 흑인의 비가시성에 의문을 제기하며, 주류문화의 전형성에 저항에 왔 다. 이는 흑인의 유산을 부정하는 패권적 문화에 도전하는 일이자 예술계의 배타적 관행을 비판 한 것이기도 하다. 이러한 히미드의 작품에는 몇 가지 중요한 특성이 있다. 히미드는 작품을 통해 백인과 흑인 모두에게 이중의 터부로 작용하는 노예제도에 대해 깊이 있게 성찰하며, 집단의 기억과 망각의 문제를 작품으로 가시화하고자 한다. 또한, 흑인 여성 예술가들의 주체성 회복을 위한 연대를 강조하며, 다양한 전시회와 저술활동을 통해 흑인들에게 덧입힌 고정관념과 열등성과 같은 식민주의적 사고와 태도에 저항한다. 따라서 본 논문에서는 루바이나 히미드의 작업을 통해, 흑인 예술 운동과 흑인 페미니즘을 비평적으로 논해 보고자 한다.

The purpose of this study is to first examine the relationship between appearanceenhancing beauty practices and feminism, and secondly, to analyze public images of contemporary women using this paradigm. Through the lens of this relationship, we present a literature review and empirical research focusing on the evolution of public image trends among girl groups, with special attention to the Refund Sisters, a South Korean supergroup currently drawing mainstream attention as female icons. The scope of analysis includes girl groups dating from the 1990’s to the year 2020 and photos of the Refund Sisters. Our results indicate that firstly, free sexual expression is evident based on active use of sexuality; images contain bold demonstrations of females desire, expressions previously considered taboo. Secondly, we note deviations from more standardized female images, unique adornment of outward appearance, and rejection of normative female images through freer forms of self-presentation. Lastly, there is greater cultural and racial diversity, rejection of modern race and gender binaries, and increased representation of queer identities. However, the relationship between appearance-enhancing beauty practices and feminism is sometimes considered paradoxical, with some arguing that beautifying one’s outward appearance is a compulsory strategy and that it should be rejected in order to resist aesthetic pressure.

본 연구의 목적은 T. S. 엘리엇의 황무지에 나타난 여성들의 노래를 통하 여, 여성의 억압과 자연의 착취 사이에 직접적 연관성이 있음을 진단하는데 있 다. 또한 이를 종교학, 여성학, 생태학적 비평을 융합하여 사회의 불평등 구조를 진단하고 해결하려는 시도를 하였다. 이전에 연구되었던 수많은 엘리엇의 선행 연구들은 다양하고 풍성하였다. 하지만 그의 종교성과 음악적 요소는 부분적으 로 연구되었고, 특히 여성들의 성적타락과 부도덕에 관해서 많은 비판이 있었던 반면, 그들의 노래에 재현된 고통과 갈망에 대한 연구를 거의 찾아볼 수 없었다. 생태비평적 관점에서도 여성들의 영성에 관한 연구는 찾아보기 힘들다. 따라서 본 논문에서는 엘리엇이 노래와 내러티브에 효율적으로 반향시킨 여성들의 종 교적 영성을 에코페미니스트 관점에서 분석하였다. 이는 황무지를 새롭게 재 해석하는 시도가 될 것이다. 엘리엇이 황무지에서 효율적으로 그려낸 신의 죽음/영성의 부재에 대한 각성, 황폐화된 자연환경, 여성의 억압적 사회구조를 인식하여, 조화롭고 평등한 사회로 발전시킬 가능성을 타진하였다. 이를 위하여 치유의 영적 에코페미니즘을 적용하여 분석하였다.

페미니즘과 영성은 서로 양립하기 힘들다고 여기는 경향이 있다. 오랫동안 페미니즘 담론에서 종교는 여성을 억압하는 사회적 기제로서 작용했다고 믿기 때문이다. 그러나 근래 들어 축적된 역사물로서 제도종교가 아닌 인간의 특정한 내면적 특질로서 영성을 새롭게 정의할 때, 페미니즘과 영성은 양립 가능해진다. 본 논문은 문학비평에서 페미니스트 이론틀로써 자주 차용되는 루스 이리가레, 쥬디스 버틀러, 벨 훅스의 근작들을 살펴보면서, 자신들의 페미니스트 해방이론에 영성을 도입하는 과정을 추적했다. 이리가레의 경우, 여성의 불평등을 조장하는 남성 중심적 종교에 대한 비판으로 시작하였으나, 곧장 이리가레는 남녀의 서로 다른 영성이 어떻게 여성을 해방시키고 궁극적으로 남녀가 평등하고 사랑하는 세상을 만들어낼 수 있는 지 설명한다. 9/11 이후 부쩍 윤리적 관심을 이론화하는 쥬디스 버틀러의 경우도 자신의 유대적 배경에서 체화된, 영성에 기반한 관계이론을 현대 지구촌에 만연한 폭력과 상업주의의 대안으로 제시한다. 흑인 페미니스트인 벨 훅스는 영성과 해방담론을 애초부터 동일한 운동으로 보는 흑인 특유의 견해를 펼친다. 흔히 사적영역의 영성과 정치적인 페미니즘 담론의 짐짓 모순된 관계에 대해서도 훅스는 명쾌한 답변을 제시한다.

This article primarily assesses feminism’s achievements and challenges, particularly within the framework of the UN gender mainstreaming policy. The first part of the article explored different feminist inquiries into general law to question whether such inquiries have been successfully or properly reflected in the UN gender mainstream process. The second part focused on the progress made by the UN Security Council through its series of resolutions on Women, Peace and Security to examine the ways in which international institutions and international legal categories tend to exclude women and the issues of most concern to women. This analysis, owing much to the extensive literatures on female analyses on international law in the last two decades, led to the conclusion that despite the significant progress that has been made by feminist international lawyers, there remain many ongoing challenges before international law may fully embrace and reflect ‘true’ feminist values.

본 연구는 제 5세대 중국 영화감독에 의해 표현되고 묘사 된 페미니즘에 대해 검토하였다. 또한 서구 영화와 중국 영화를 비교분석함으로서 페미니즘의 프레임 워크가 영화에 어떻게 반영되는지 연구하였다.

'Eco-feminism' as a combination of two words, 'ecology' and 'feminism', rests on the basic principle that patriarchical philosophies are harmful to women, children, and other living things. Eco-feminists feel that the patriarchical philosophy emphasizes the need to dominate and control unruly females and the unruly wilderness. What is stressed in eco-feminism is to change the still prevailing idea that the male-dominated civilization must be justified: eco-feminists think that human beings came to recognize that such civilization can't be the source of happiness. Meanwhile we can find that in Yeats's and Heaney's poems land and landscape are personified as an oppressed woman, from which I drew a hypothesis that these two poets may offer the prominent examples of literature based upon eco-feminism. By contrast, we can also find that these two poets also reveal patriarchism based upon Catholicism. Therefore, if anything, we can suppose that many works of these poets are reflecting both eco-feminism and patriarchism. The Irish poems and poets cannot but reflect these two ideas: eco-feminism and patriarchism. Meanwhile, in Irish poetry, woman is mainly reflected as three types of human-sovereign, procreator and lover. In Yeats's and Heaney's poems, woman and nature are to be appraised as important materials. Women in Yeats's poems are faithful to the traditional image as the lover or rarely the sovereign. And also, we can find that the persona wants to use her as his poetic inspiration by admiring her beauty and seeking sexual energy and wisdom from her. By contrast, women in Heaney's poems are mainly described as procreators who are to survive the oppressed land. The two poets are to be appraised to reflect eco-feminism in that they both show their love for woman and nature. Strictly speaking, however, Heaney's poems are more declined to eco-feminism while Yeats's poems are more declined to patriarchism: in Heaney's poems land and landscape sometimes appear as the oppressed woman; in Yeats's poems the persona blames woman for her violence, emphasizing that woman should have courtesy, wisdom and sexual attraction, not the intellectual hatred, whereas in Heaney's poems the persona never blames woman but feels pity for her oppressed situation.

In this study, I trace out the influence of woman’s images on Yeats in biographical and feministic point of view. For Yeats, woman was the major poetic motif and source of inspiration; meeting, interacting, and parting with women gave him a motive for poems and deepened philosophy as well as his literary view. As Yeats said in his Essays and Introductions, he "writes of his personal life, in his finest work out of its tragedy, whatever it be, remorse, lost love, or mere loneliness,” and "would die of loneliness but for women.” Indeed, woman for Yeats is the focal point of various themes such as praise of heroic and ideal beauty, despair caused by unrequited love, friendship, maternal love etc. Among many women who influenced Yeats, Maud Gonne was the most important figure. It seems that she was a real feminist who tried to seek a dignified life and ideal as a woman, cultivating her identity and soul rather than being a common woman who is financially and physically subject to man and to cultivate outward appearance to draw man's attention. Even though not accepting Yeats's love, she was not an extreme feminist who denied the entire role and realm of man and supported just woman's opinion and benefits. Instead she seemed to be a moderate feminist who tried to find the real freedom and hope for the Irish women and children who suffered from the dignity and violence of a patriarchal husband as well as chronic poverty. Yeats’s painful but productive relationship with Maud Gonne determined his favor for certain type of women with masculinity rather than with a passive, complaisant, and traditional beauty. As in his fascination of Niam suggested, Yeats liked to praise beautiful women who have masculinity, and he took a courtly love attitude to receive their love. Therefore, he tried to write poems which needed great labour like a woman’s childbirth and praise women of a masculine spirit. Yet Maud Gonne’s constant decline of his suit and radical political inclination, and his depressed Libido made him deeply feel the pain caused by such a mannish woman. Especially, the sudden confession of her past love with Millevoye and her marriage with MacBride gave him a great shock and changed his view of woman. Now he instead dreamed of living a comfortable life with a woman who has traditional feminine nature. At last, Yeats got married to Hyde-Lees with such feminine factors, only to find that her charm and sexual satisfaction didn’t last long. After the conflict with Maud Gonne in 1919, Yeats came to emphasize conservative view of woman, insisting that woman should live in a pure blessing and give up her opinionated mind. He asserted that woman with perfect beauty could be happy only when she made herself beautiful and played a faithful role as man’s supporter. In this period, Maud Gonne’s images was painted dark in his poems; ‘intellectual hatred’, ‘opinionated mind’, and ‘a woman who lost the Horn of Plenty’. But such dark images soon disappeared. Yeats again longed for his lost love, Maud Gonne. However he could not escape from the conflicts between body and soul, ideal and reality. Such a dilemma made him pay attention to Unity of Being, the harmonious union of body and soul, and create his persona, Crazy Jane. Yeats's views of woman suffer many changes through his earlier, middle and later poems. It can be said that his views of woman are expressed according to the increase or decrease in femininity or masculinity inherent within Yeats’s self, the influence of his suppressed libido, and his attitude toward Irish politics. However it can’t be denied that woman was the continuous motif and inspiration of his poems.

In this thesis I discussed feministic attitudes in the works of three writers: William Blake’s Visions of the Daughters of Albion, William Butler Yeats’ A Woman Young and Old, and Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching(道德經). Blake and Yeats were English visionary poets and Lao Tzu was an Old Master who lived in the 2nd century B.C. in Han Dynasty China. In Visions of the Daughters of Albion Blake is not only concerned with the rights of women but also with the slavery systems and freedom. The heroine is called ‘soft soul of America.’ Blake knew the first radical feminist Mary Wollstonecraft and may be responding to her enthusiasm for the emancipation of women. Moreover, the oppression of Oothoon is bound up with the campaign of the early 1790s against both the slave trade and the nearer cruelties in the exploitation of child labour. The heroine Oothoon is raped by Bromion and abandoned by her lover, Theotormon. Theotormon’s jealousy binds them, back to back in a cave. Bromion’s violence and Theotomon’s jealousy and oppression cause her woe. She is trying to justify the innocence of love, the joy in the making of love and delight in life, the beautiful in every life. Her long outburst against hypocrisy in marriage and restraint in love in the third section of the poem is for women repressed by men in traditional and Christian society. She wants to be a human, not a servant of man. In A Woman Young and Old the woman speaks first in youth, then in age. This series of poems are companion poems to those of A Man Young and Old. These poetic sequences have an identical structure of eleven poems, ending with a section from Yeats’ translation of the Oedipus cycle. The first poem, “Father and Child” opens with an image of a young woman leaving the conventional world and the judgment of other people for an attractive life and her own opinions. In the sixth poem in the central position, “Chosen” the woman takes for her theme the theme of the poem. The young woman compares the peace and feeling of completeness after lovemaking to the perfect moment when the “Zodiac is changed into a sphere,” the Thirteenth Cycle or Thirteenth Cone in A Vision. It is that cycle which may deliver us from the twelve cycles of time and space. In the last poem, “From the ‘Antigone’” the old woman, now a tragic heroine, narrates her descent “into the loveless dust.” The heroine in A Woman Young and Old tries to find her own voice and life. In the first chapter of Tao Te Ching the nameless Tao is the origin of heaven and earth which grows the myriad things. Thus these two are the same. Upon appearing, they are named differently. Their sameness is the mystery, mystery within mystery. Heaven is the symbol of man; earth is the symbol of woman. Man and woman have the same root, and their union makes the myriad things. In the sixth chapter of the book Lao Tzu praises feminity, called ‘the valley spirit,’ the root of heaven and earth. The valley is used metaphorically as a symbol of ‘emptiness’ or ‘vacancy;’ ‘the spirit of the valley’ is something invisible, yet almost personal, belonging to the Tao. ‘The female mystery’ is the name of chapter 1, or the Tao which is ‘the Mother of all things.’ All living beings have a father and a mother. Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching could be translated as The Law (or Canon) of Virtue and its Way. He thought that all straining, all striving is not only vain but counterproductive. One should endeavor to do nothing (wu-wei). It means not to do anything literally, but to discern and follow the natural forces-to flow with events and not to pit oneself against the natural order of things. In this way Taoist philosophy reached out to council rulers and advised them how to govern their domains. Blake and Yeats insist women’s human rights and the union of man and woman can give us the perfect moment in this life. Lao Tzu teaches us feministic Tao and the harmony of man and woman. The three share great wisdom about the order of the nature and can elucidate the way of Feminism.

This article begins with an introduction of women in Calvin’s time in order to explain his context and his attitude about women and women’s issues. Calvin’s Christian thoughts are of great importance both to the church and the society at large. In this article, the author focuses on women around Calvin: more particularly, Calvin’s marriage with Idelette de Bure, his concept of marriage and Marie Dentière as pioneer of women’s theology in his historical context. The author focused on illustrations of influential women in Calvin’s time and their limitations full emancipation. Calvin challenged the medieval ethic of marriage issues while retaining some conservative attitudes. However, he shouldn’t be criticized to feminist measures of the twenty-first century. It is obvious that there are certain limitations of his ideas in his era, but at the same time provides an important theological basis for further development within the Swiss reformed tradition. Particularly in the churches, one must learn to avoid discrimination gender, race, or social class, and instead place as much value as possible on each individual.