Prefiguring the proliferation of postcolonial discourses in the next two decades, this essay attempts to illuminate the key issues pertaining to collectivity and individuality in postcolonial relations: territorial consciousness, linguistic domination, and cultural imperialism among others. The essay examines these interrelated questions in terms of what I would define as "postcolonial cognitive mapping." Cognitive mapping involves demarcating cultural territories as self and other, center and margin, and indigenous intellectuals in the third world and minority intellectuals in the first world. In relation to this mapping, Fredric Jameson demonstrates that third-world texts, even those which are seemingly private and invested with a properly libidinal dynamic necessarily project a political dimension in the form of "national allegory." That is to say, the story of the private individual destiny is always an allegory of the embattled situation of the Third World's culture and society. Meanwhile, Aubdul JanMohamed argues that the minority discourse should be located in non-identity-that is, not in shared identity such as race, nation, and gender, but rather in the shared experience of economic and cultural marginalization. At this juncture, the writing subject should be in the cultural and political thinking which is able to dialectically encompass both the collective tactics in third world and the individual one in First World. By doing this, the postcolonial writer can achieve the autonomy of his/her poetics of identity. If the postcolonial project in writing is at once to recognize and resist the continuing influence of colonialism, the only choice given is to use cognitive mapping strategically in order to achieve creative transcendence.

As a contemporary Northern Irish, Anne Devlin questions the traumatic experience and memory in personal and national histories of Northern Ireland. The Troubles-ridden landscape of Northern Ireland turns into a dramatic site in which Anne Devlin’s heroines negotiate their quests for voice and visibility. In her first play, Ourselves Alone (1985), Devlin foregrounds the experiences of women who are excluded from the public and secluded within their domestic realm. Three young women, Frieda, Josie and Donna, struggle against the isolation and the violence that permeate their daily lives. What is common to these three women is that their lives are constructed, controlled, and represented by the men around them. Their personal identities are constantly wiped out by the communal identities. Whether they are career women, political activists, or housewives, there is always a boundary that limits their sphere of action. Furthermore, the idea of home becomes a metaphor for their nation. Far from being a domestic haven, their homes are constantly disrupted by external violence in war-torn Belfast and their homes turn into an experimental site where men’s national ideology is tried and approved. Here, the male patriarch or father figure comes armed with a specific political and national stance and the home becomes a microcosm of the nation. Women are expected to live up to a national ideal in which their primary function is to reproduce the members of the collectives while their home is under constant patriarchal surveillance. This essay focuses on questions of home, gender and nation and asks how the seemingly most private sphere of home has come to be intersected with the public sphere of the nation and, also, how women’s roles are imagined and perpetuated within the frame of national ideology.

The purpose of this research is to study the Yeat's view on the good and evil in human nature. Throughout his life, Yeats has made a spiritual, mystical and mythological world in which he tries to portray the eternally dichotomized nature of human consciousness. Yet, he attempts to harmonize the antinomies, the contraries that highlight human nature. Yeats's life and art is full of such attempts to unify harmoniously opposite forces: body and soul, good and evil, light and darkness, the sun and the moon, the antithetical and the primary, etc.. In this almost impossible unison of conflicting forces, Yeats hopes to find the unity of the two. For Yeats, instinct without spirituality, intellect without emotion, wisdom without action, and good without evil can only express a part of human nature, and he refused to deny one side of human being. He did not want to separates his soul from matter, good from evil but to find the perfect balance and attain the assertion of the 'Unity of Being.'

In 1938 Yeats had his New Poems (starting with “The Gyres”and ending with “Are You Content?”) published by Cuala Press. These poems were, however, mixed up with the real last poems written between January 1938 and January 1939 under the heading of Last Poems and Plays published in 1940 to be incorporated in the Collected Poems of W.B.Yeats. This editorial work turned out to be ill-advised and unfortunate: Yeats's intention to make a new beginning with New Poems was, in fact, obscured. It is quite natural that one should consider “The Gyres,” the first poem of New Poems suggestive of what the new start was and what change in his attitude of mind toward life stimulated Yeats to do that. Yeats systematized what he had learned from his long involvement in various mystical activities in his own way in A Vision. He probably wished his statements in the book about man, and history would be proved on the empirical level so that he might make confident poetic statements of them. At this juncture he certainly experienced a kind of epiphany: he probably attained to visionary insight that man, history and things are nothing but phenomena in flux. From this insight he gained two things: one was, as he said, nonchalance, that is, a detached attitude to life and things, the other was confidence in himself when making poetic statements out of anything. These two made his new beginning possible. They are summed up in the expressions, “The Gyres! the Gyres!”, “what matter?”, “tragic joy,” and “Rejoice.”

The Tower, published in 1928, is Yeats's finest single volume of poetry, and it might also be the finest single book of poems published in the twentieth century (O'Donnell 89). Many poems of the volume confront the problems of growing old. This paper attempts to read three poems selected from The Tower--"Sailing to Byzantium," "The Tower," and "Among School Children"--in terms of their representations of old age and its relation to desire and the imagination. In "Sailing to Byzantium," the poet begins by declaring that Ireland is "no country for old men." He complains that here all are "caught in that sensual music" and "neglect monuments of unageing intellect." "The Tower" also begins with the poet's confused question: "What shall I do with this absurdity . . . this caricature, decrepit age?" He complains about his old age because it makes his body "a sort of battered kettle at the heel," and that body can deride his imagination and its work. The poet's complaint or anxiety about old age in these poems comes from the fact that his old age and bodily decrepitude make it hard to satisfy his desire. In "Sailing to Byzantium," lack of satisfaction makes him unhappy in Ireland and wish to leave. Also in "The Tower," unsatisfied desire makes his heart "troubled," and so he is even tempted to give up poetry and choose philosophy. However, ironically enough, unsatisfied desire makes his imagination stronger than ever. Now, in spite of his bodily decrepitude, his imagination enables him to travel to the "holy city" of Byzantium, and there pray to the sages there that he may be changed into a golden bird, "an artifice of eternity." In "The Tower," the poet sends his imagination forth and calls "images and memories" to ask questions of them. In the process of calling images and asking questions, the poet restores his belief in the power of the imagination, and, because of this belief, he can leave his "pride" and "faith" as poet to the "young upstanding men" of Ireland. "Among School Children" confronts the problem of physical ageing a little differently. The poem shows the poet walking through the schoolroom and dreaming of "a Ledaean body" (Maud Gonne). His imagining her as a child and then thinking of "her present image" leads to the meditation not only on the general human fate of ageing but also on the images which "break hearts" because they do not touch the reality of life. Not only the passage of time but also the false images make human life exhausted and unhappy. To solve the problem, the poet's imagination creates two images of unified being: the "blossoming" tree and the "dancing" body. Where life is blossoming or dancing, the poet says, "The body is not bruised to pleasure soul." What he is trying to say is that life is an ongoing process, and so we must accept it as it really is.

This paper is focused on the rather esoteric search wondering if the two masters of letters across the recent West would communicate with each other in that they commonly lived in marginal countries, were schooled in English-speaking cultures and interested in the ultimate and overwhelming themes on 'maximalism' that mainly tends to put value on life and death, eternity and transcendence. This moment that the sublime mission of critics practices concreteness of obscurity recurs to us. Yeats tries to represent the motives stemming from myths and legends, while Borges pursues the representation of fantastic states missing in library, labyrinth and maze, which means their sympathetic embodiment of 'bricolage' on permanence. And through doubt of inertia realized in use of language and creation of works, Yeats practices 'automatic writing' and 'theory of mask' for the objectification of his works which results in construction of reality, while Borges does 'self-reflexivity' which shows us deconstruction of reality as broken mirror in favor of sarcastic criticism of writing. For the political positions of their biographies, the masters have something in common with their prominent careers and activities in which Yeats served the senate and resisted the British empire and Borges contributed to professor of a state-run university and stood against the Peron regime. Henceforth, some conjunctional and disjunctional points on intertextuality between the two masters can be inferred from their views on Buddhism and poems. In the respect that we, who can't be creators of texts but their agents, only drive violent 'assemblage' of code to camouflage Things, the suggestion that the immortal poem of Sowol's, "Azalea," imitated "He wishes for the cloths of heaven" and "The Lover Mourns for the Loss of Love" of Yeats's is reasonable and natural, and it can be deduced that Sowol didn't duplicate Yeats's poems but borrowed masochistic imagery from them, which reminds us of T. S. Eliot's declaration that only the first rank poet unnoticeably can steal other poets' works. On the other hand, Borges, through the parodized "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote," shows us the meanings of the text changeable with transitions of generations. Accordingly Sowol's poems tacitly responds to Yeats's poems, while Borges straightforwardly transcribes the original work in view of self-reflexivity. That Yeats's response to Shen-hsiu's and Hui-neng's Zen poems indicates that Zen can free people from the abstract mode of life fettering them is in contrast with Borges's reaction to Buddhism that 'a parable of arrow' and the high monk, Bodhidharma's insight de-constructing his pupil's faith of self-verification searching for his authentic mind only leads to meaningless groping of life. Although the masters's views seem different, virtually they are equal in the sense that life is nothing but some limited play in mood of 'tragic joy,' which is just like recognition of nothingness. Even if the entire works of Yeats's and Borges's can't be read, we can sense their themes converged under keynote of 'maximalism.' For pursuit of a Utopia, Yeats yearns for it, but Borges denies it. In recognition of reality and fantasy, Yeats tries to overcome reality through fantasy, while Borges thinks of reality as fantasy. Their positions on woman are extremely different in that Yeats exposes masochistic symptom, while Borges manifests 'carpe diem' mourning a beauty's fate finally encroached by the beast of time. For the ultimate theme of God, Yeats longs for unity with God, instead, Borges views God 'langue' as cultural and linguistic structure. Concerning cataclysm of civilization, the masters are of the same opinions in that Yeats asserts cyclic patterns of civilization to move from the one pole to the other pole and Borges songs a Nietzschean circulation. They show us considerably wide contrasts concerning recognition of eternity since Yeats yearns for immortal existence, while Borges views human beings ephemeral existences. In conclusion, intertextuality functioning an essential principle of life becomes the ground to deconstruct the boundary between authors and readers and shatters the absolute icons of authors and canons, since the moment we unfold texts before us, we often tend to indulge into illusion reading precisely them rather than 'misreading' them and recognizing reality caused by automaticity of linguistic structure. However, to avoid or lessen the contradiction or irony in the reading community, we can enjoy the horizon of split or inter-subjective meanings produced by diverse walks of readers with eradicating 'transcendental signified' of canon. After all, Intertextuality can be the background of De-construction, simultaneously serves the ideology of 'pragmatic theory' for texts not to be the origins or totalities of Things but to contribute to this and that aim of life.

The paper defines two key terms of the last century: Deconstruction and Decreation. Emphasis is put on the second term, as it is useful to understand how Stevens composed his poetry and what he wanted to say about form and content in poetry in a modern context. In his essay "The Relations between Poetry and Painting" he talks about the term Decreation, which means the modern sensibility and mind that eye reality. Stevens' definition of decreation seems to fit well in some of Yeats's poems, the fact of which proves that it can be applied to modern poetry in general, as it has gone through the same soil and climate. Picasso exemplifies and consolidates the usefulness of the terms decreation and deconstruction. Stevens has made one term current and useful for deepening the understanding and appreciation of modern and contemporary poetry, and possibly modern and contemporary art.

It seems that macro-history has no relationship with family history at first glance. A close look at macro-history reveals that people in the micro-history are helplessly governed by macro-history regardless of their willingness. John Montague, a contemporary Northern Irish poet, has sought to investigate his tragic, painful familial history resulting from the macro-history of Northern Ireland which also turns out to be in predicament in political, religious, and educational terms. He was born in Brooklyn, New York, where his father had to be in exile because of his involvement in political activities in Ulster, Norther Ireland. Yet when Montague was quite young, he was sent to Garvaghey, Northern Ireland, his father's hometown. He was brought up there under the tutelage of his aunt. His early experience of separation from his parents has become the central theme of his poetry along with the political turmoil in Belfast. Thus, a number of his poems address his familial distress as well as his own. This essay seeks to examine how the poet recreates in his poems his painful experience involved in his family members, the victims of Northern Ireland's history. Many poems in Rough Field and Dead Kingdom are evaluated to be successful in terms of maintaining his temper even if they deal with painful matters of his family. As Montague himself reveals in his proses and interviews, his poetry seems to place its focus not only on praise but on liberation from his burdensome family history. To Montague, writing poetry is an inevitable means to overcome harsh realities given to his own family, himself and Northern Irish history. Particularly in his later poems, Montague arrives at reconciliation with the two corresponding histories he had to face.

The first issue of The Yeats Journal of Korea published in 1991, just after the foundation of the Yeats Society of Korea on the same year. The society published the 25th volume of the journal on June 30, 2006. At first the journal was issued annually but since the year 1998, it has been published biannually. The aim of this paper is to check the citation of domestic material at the theses in the journal from the first issue to the 25th issue. As I imagines, it turns out that very few scholars seem to read the theses written by other Korean scholars. Only small number of theses among 234 theses acknowledge that they cite theses written by other scholar and published in this journal or other journal. Just a little more than the theses which acknowledge the citation of other scholars' theses acknowledge the citation of other author's books. Though some theses in The Yeats Journal of Korea acknowledge the citation of other scholars' theses and/or books, the number is very small. Compared with the long history and large volume of Yeats study in Korea, there should be more citation of domestic material. When we scholars read other scholars's theses and books, and cite them, if possible, The Yeats Journal of Korea will have the significance to exist. No citation can be interpreted as the scholars' confession that the theses were of no value. The way to develop Yeats study in Korea is to read the theses and books published in Korea as well as published in foreign counties.

Irish contemporary poet Eavan Boland mounts the starting point of her poetry to a very practical issue of how to imagine women’s lives inside Irish history. Given E. H. Carr’s modern notion of the ‘historiography’ of history, history that used to record the progress in the public sphere can be regarded as masculine. And in such masculine history women, who have often been associated with Nature due to their biological function, have never been imagined as active contributors to historical progress. Likewise, Irish women’s domestic experiences have been discarded as worthless while Irish men’s public experiences have been integrated to the progress of Irish history. Troubled by the fact that Irish women's lived experiences have been silenced in Irish history, Boland has been exploring the possibility of eroticizing such masculine history and creating a livable space for real-life Irish women in her poetry. Therefore in this essay I'll look into Outside History (1990) among her many books of poems published since 1962. Outside History, which comprises of three parts, is especially significant in her poetic career because in it Boland’s individual and communal concerns as a woman and woman poet are intricately woven and expanded to the issue of the historiography of Irish history. Specifically, I will examine how Boland engages in a very creative project of diving into Irish history and emerging with a body of lived experiences of women that have been silenced and treated as non-existence. I will also illuminate the fact that Boland’s erotics of history suggests a new alternative way of writing political poetry in Ireland. Ultimately, I aim to show that Boland, not by romanticizing past women in a new myth and legend but by etching out an original poetic space, has successively swerved from the formidable influence of W. B. Yeats and become a representative poet of her own.

'Eco-feminism' as a combination of two words, 'ecology' and 'feminism', rests on the basic principle that patriarchical philosophies are harmful to women, children, and other living things. Eco-feminists feel that the patriarchical philosophy emphasizes the need to dominate and control unruly females and the unruly wilderness. What is stressed in eco-feminism is to change the still prevailing idea that the male-dominated civilization must be justified: eco-feminists think that human beings came to recognize that such civilization can't be the source of happiness. Meanwhile we can find that in Yeats's and Heaney's poems land and landscape are personified as an oppressed woman, from which I drew a hypothesis that these two poets may offer the prominent examples of literature based upon eco-feminism. By contrast, we can also find that these two poets also reveal patriarchism based upon Catholicism. Therefore, if anything, we can suppose that many works of these poets are reflecting both eco-feminism and patriarchism. The Irish poems and poets cannot but reflect these two ideas: eco-feminism and patriarchism. Meanwhile, in Irish poetry, woman is mainly reflected as three types of human-sovereign, procreator and lover. In Yeats's and Heaney's poems, woman and nature are to be appraised as important materials. Women in Yeats's poems are faithful to the traditional image as the lover or rarely the sovereign. And also, we can find that the persona wants to use her as his poetic inspiration by admiring her beauty and seeking sexual energy and wisdom from her. By contrast, women in Heaney's poems are mainly described as procreators who are to survive the oppressed land. The two poets are to be appraised to reflect eco-feminism in that they both show their love for woman and nature. Strictly speaking, however, Heaney's poems are more declined to eco-feminism while Yeats's poems are more declined to patriarchism: in Heaney's poems land and landscape sometimes appear as the oppressed woman; in Yeats's poems the persona blames woman for her violence, emphasizing that woman should have courtesy, wisdom and sexual attraction, not the intellectual hatred, whereas in Heaney's poems the persona never blames woman but feels pity for her oppressed situation.

This article explores Yeats's “A Woman Young and Old.” All the poems in the series “A Woman Young and Old" were written between 1926 and 1929. During this time Yeats was lamenting the vulgarity of hegemonic Irish culture. This series poems described feminine sexuality in the social and cultural repression of women. The sequence of eleven poems deal with the problems of female body and desire in a repressive society. In these poems Yeats insisted on the beauty or importance of feminine sexuality and sexual desire. “A Woman Young and Old” takes up Yeats's metaphysical questions - eternal beauty, the relationship between body and soul, the interdependence of sexual love and spiritual hate. Feminine sexuality is the mark of the rebellion against conventional social and cultural frame. Yeats's female personae embody a sacred sexuality and Yeats's sexual frankness close to a sexual mysticism. Feminine sexuality and desiring female bodies are defiantly asserted, and asserted specifically as transgressions, because they are precisely what is forbidden. In this series poems the female body and desire is expressed in Yeats's criticism of the repressive sexual morality and culture of the Irish society, especially the Catholic Church. Linking of feminine sexuality and the sacred indicates Yeats's critique of Catholic Irishness. The speakers of the female sequence are embattled with a social and symbolic order that seeks to confine them. Yeats described sexual freedom and defiance against the authority and opposition in patriarchal society. Yeats's increasingly explicit emphasis on feminine sexuality and sexual desire at that time. Whereas Irish Catholicism viewed the desires of the body as threats to the soul, for Yeats the two were interdependent. Yeats insisted that “the love of man and woman, and inseparable physical desire, are sacred”(UPII, 451). This article tries to show how Yeats's of awareness of feminine sexuality is linked with a sexual mysticism and the sacred. Yeats connected women's body and desire with a sexual mysticism and the sacred in such a bold and defiant way.