Concerning the apprehensions about naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) residues, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and its member nations have acknowledged the imperative to ensure the radiation safety of NORM industries. Residues with elevated radioactivity concentrations are predominantly produced during NORM processing, in the form of scale and sludge, referred to as technically enhanced NORM (TENORM). Substantial quantities of TENORM residues have been released externally due to the dismantling of NORM processing factories. These residues become concentrated and fixed in scale inside scrap pipes. To assess the radioactivity of scales in pipes of various shapes, a Monte Carlo simulation was employed to determine dose rates corresponding to the action level in TENORM regulations for different pipe diameters and thicknesses. Onsite gamma spectrometry was conducted on a scrap iron pipe from the titanium dioxide manufacturing factory. The measured dose rate on the pipe enabled the estimation of NORM concentration in the pipe scale onsite. The derived action level in dose rate can be applied in the NORM regulation procedure for on-site judgments.

The hospitality, tourism, and travel (HTT) industry has a significant environmental impact due to its water, energy, and waste production. One of the main challenges faced by the HTT industry is the reduction of the negative environmental impact of hotel businesses. Recent studies have shown that consumers are willing to pay a premium for green hotels that adopt environmentally friendly practices to minimize their impact on the environment. While interest in these practices has been increasing, not all consumers are familiar with actual benefits of green hotels. Therefore, it is necessary to employ strategies to increase consumers’ awareness and encourage positive pre-purchasing decisions when selecting a green hotel.

Natural radionuclides-containing substances (NORM) contain natural radionuclides and cause radiation exposure. In Korea, safety management measures were needed to deal with and dispose of radon mattresses containing monazite in relation to such NORM. However, there is no clear safety management system related to NORM waste in Korea. In order to manage this reasonably and systematically, it is necessary to investigate and analyze standards and management measures related to the treatment and disposal of NORM waste. Therefore, this study investigated and analyzed the exemption and clearance level of NORM waste regulations in international organizations and foreign countries. IAEA GSR Part 3, 2013/59/Euratom, ANSI/HPS N13.53, CRCPD SSRCR Part N, and ARPANSA Publications 15 safety management regulations were analyzed to investigate safety management standards for NORM waste. The exemption and clearance level in international organizations and foreign countries were compared and analyzed based on radioactive concentration and dose. In addition, the management measures proposed for each literature were also investigated. As a result of the analysis, IAEA GSR Part 3 applied 1 mSv as a regulatory exemption level, 1 Bq/g for uranium and thorium series as a clearance level, and 10 Bq/g for K-40 nuclides. The IAEA recommends a differential approach to the potential and scale of exposure. The EU applied 1 Bq/g to uranium and thorium families and 10 Bq/g to K-40 nuclides for both regulatory exemption and clearance levels. The EU recommended that it be managed in proportion to the scale and likelihood of exposure as a result of the action. It is analyzed that this is similar to the IAEA’s management plan. In the United States, there was no single federal government radioactive concentration and dose for NORM management. The management plan differed in management status and level from state to state, and K-40 was excluded from regulation unless it was intentionally enriched. In the case of Australia, the radioactive concentration of uranium and thorium was 1 Bq/g as a standard for regulatory exemption and 1 mSv as a dose. As a management plan, it was suggested to dispose of waste by means of accumulation, dilution/dispersion, and reclamation. It was also suggested that the scale of exposure, like international organizations, take into account the possibility. The results of this study are believed to be used as basic data for presenting domestic NORM waste treatment and disposal methods in the future.

Milling facilities, which belong to the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle, are essential steps for utilizing uranium in nuclear power generation. These milling facilities currently provide the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) with the location and annual production capacity of the facility through the Additional Protocol (AP, INFCIRC/540) and grant IAEA inspectors on-site sampling authority to apply safeguards to the facility. However, since milling facilities process a large amount of nuclear material and the product uranium ore concentrate (UOC) is bulk material, the absence of accounting for the facility could pose a potential risk of nuclear proliferation. Therefore, this study proposes technical approach that can be utilized for safeguards in milling facilities. Since the half-life of uranium isotopes is much longer than that of its daughter, they reach the secular equilibrium condition. However, after milling process, the fresh tailing showed the break of that secular equilibrium. As time goes on, they newly reach another secular equilibrium condition. Based on this observation, this study discussed the feasibility of the ratio method in safeguards purpose. The scenario applied in this study was 1% of uranium mill tailing. It was observed that the U-238/Th-234 and U- 238/Pa-234m ratios in fresh milling tails varied as a function of time after discharging, particularly during the first one year. This change can be worked as a significant signature in terms of safeguards. In conclusion, the ratio method in mill tails could be applicable for safeguards of nuclear milling facility.

이 글은 구성주의 이론가들의 국제규범(norm) 연구에 대한 비판적 문 헌연구를 바탕으로 신기술과 인권 담론에 발현된 규범 클러스터(norm cluster) 양상을 분석한다. 본 연구의 핵심 질의는 한국 정부가 유엔인권 이사회 차원에서 제기되고 있는 ‘신기술과 인권’ 의제를 주도하면서도 이 와 개념적으로 연계되어 있는 자율살상무기금지 규범에는 소극적인 ‘선 택성’의 원인이 무엇인가 하는 것이다. 본 연구는 특정 국제규범이 메타 규범·구성규범·실행규범의 다층적 성격을 가진다는 규범 클러스터 연구의 적용을 통해 신기술과 인권 의제가 메타규범에 자율상살무기 금지규범이 실행규범에 해당하며, 이러한 선택적 규범화 전략이 사실 자연스러운 것 일 수 있음을 주장한다. 또한, 신기술과 인권 관련 국내·외 담론에서 확 인되는 ‘파편성’ 역시 우리 정부의 전략에 영향을 미친바, 이는 본 연구 가 국내 핵심이해관계 당사자를 대상으로 수행한 인터뷰에서도 확인된 다. 이에 더해, 메타규범 차원에서는 한국의 역할제고에 기여하며 뚜렷한 정책비용을 수반하지 않는 신기술과 인권 담론이 실행규범 차원에서는 안보정책 기조와의 충돌이라는 가시적 비용을 수반한다는 점 역시 고려 되었다고 볼 수 있다.

Cement is widely used as representative industrial material. In Korea, about 50 million tons of cement are consumed every year. In the manufacture of cement, raw materials containing NORM such as fly ash and bauxite are used. Therefore, the workers can be subjected to radiation exposure. The major exposure pathway in NORM industries is internal exposure due to inhalation of aerosol. Internal radiation dose due to aerosol inhalation varies depending on physicochemical properties of the aerosol. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate aerosol properties influencing inhalation dose in cement industries. In this study, aerosol properties were measured for two cement manufacturers. A particulate size distribution and concentration at various processing areas in cement manufacturing industries in Korea were analyzed using a cascade impactor. The mass density of raw materials and byproducts were measured using pycnometer. Shape of particulates was analyzed using SEM. The radioactivity concentration of Ra-226, Ra-228 for U/Th decay series was measured using HPGe. Particulate concentration by size was distributed log-normally with maximum at particle size about 7.2 μm in manufacturer A and 5.2 μm in manufacturer B. The mass density of fly ash and cement were 2.3±0.06, 3.2±0.02 g/cm3 respectively in manufacturer A. In manufacturer B, the mass density of bauxite and cement were 3.4±0.02, 2.9±0.01 g/cm3 respectively. The shape of particulates appeared as spherical shape in manufacturer A and B regardless of sampling area. Thus, a shape factor of unity could be assumed. The radioactivity concentrations of Ra-226, Ra-228 were 82±9, 82±8 Bq/kg for fly ash, and 25±4, 23±3 Bq/kg for cement in manufacturer A. In manufacturer B, the radioactivity concentrations of Ra-226, Ra-228 were 344±34, 391±32 Bq/kg for bauxite, and 122±13, 145±12 Bq/kg for cement. The radioactivity concentrations of Ra-226, Ra-228 in cement were less than raw materials such as fly ash and bauxite. It is because the dilution of the radioactivity concentration occurred during mixing with other raw materials in cement production process. This study results will be used as database for accurate dose assessment due to airborne particulate inhalation by workers in cement industries.

EU BSSD (2013/59/EURATOM) requires that NORM involving activities are managed within the same regulatory framework as other practices causing exposure to ionizing radiation, and a graded approach to regulatory control needs to be applied based on radiation risk. The graded approach is applied to all sources of radiation subject to regulation. However, it should be adopted for industrial activities involving NORM. In the case of the regulatory control of NORM, the application of the concepts of exemption and clearance plays a key role. Most of the European countries have adopted the new EU BSSD general exemption/clearance levels, 1 Bq/g for U/Th series and 10 Bq/g for K-40. In addition to the general exemption or clearance criteria, some countries have implemented the graded regulatory approach, adopting more restrictive criteria as a specific exemption or clearance based on the risk of 1 mSv/y for workers and 0.01-0.3 mSv/y for public.

In Malaysia, there are several industries processing mineral ores generate residues containing naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) with activity concentrations above the control limits established by the Malaysian Atomic Energy Licensing Board (AELB). These industries use mineral ores or concentrated ores as their feed materials to produce or extract valuable sand minerals or rare earth compounds for use in another industries. The control limits for activity concentrations of Uranium-238 (U-238) and Thorium-232 (Th-232) and their decay series is 1.0 Becquerel per gram (Bq·g−1) while activity concentration of Potassium 40 (K-40) is 10.0 Bq·g−1. The management of residue containing NORM radioactivity above the control limits must be done in accordance with current rules and regulations including proper handling, storage, transportation and/or disposal. Where possible, appropriate mixture process with other non-radiological material would reduce the activity concentrations to below the control limits. Depending on specific characteristics of residue, appropriate approach to reuse or recycle should be encouraged as part of special waste management. For this case, an exemption to release it from radiological controls can be applied but require scrutiny review and approval process by AELB. In addition, the health and safety aspects and environmental issues should be assessed which to be done in accordance with the relevant rules and regulations. As a last resort, a disposal of residue containing NORM radioactivity shall be done at the landfill disposal facility approved by AELB and other relevant Authorities.

Tin slag is a byproduct obtained from the tin smelting industry and contained naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM); therefore, it has to be managed accordingly. This study focuses on recycling the waste in exchange for natural aggregates for road pavement due to the potential features as construction materials. The main objective of this study is to analyze the use of tin slag by diluting its radioactivity level and as the replacement of natural aggregates while focusing on identifying the mechanical properties of the mixture. Tin slag was used as coarse aggregate in the range of 0–85% while the percentage of recycle glass was maintained at 15% and granite rocks in range of 0–100%. In this research, the concentration activity of NORM in tin slag have been measured using a gamma ray spectrometer. Few laboratory tests for the final product are carried out such as Los Angeles abrasion value (LAAV), aggregate crushing value (ACV), and aggregate impact value (AIV). This study was also conducted to analyze the leachability of As, Cd, Ba, Cr, Pb, Se and Ag from the different composition. From the measurement result, the average concentration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K are 318.21 Bq·kg−1, 602.07 Bq·kg−1 and 89.84 Bq·kg−1, respectively. The outdoor dose rates were found to be lower than 1.5 mSv·yr−1 in sample A1, A2 and A3 which is the recommended limit for construction materials. The sample toxicity was assessed using the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) and the concentration of the elements studied was analysed using ICP-MS. The result from the analysis indicated that the concentrations of the heavy metal elements were between 0.001–26.94 mg·kg−1, which is lower than the limit for each element. As a conclusion, addition of tin slag between 5 to 25% in exchange of granite rocks as road pavement have showed potential evidence in the test for construction material. Besides, it has low leachability to the environment while diluting the radioactivity level.

본 논문은 개인의 비합리적인 이타주의 행동을 설명하는 규범활성화모델을 활용하여 공정무역제품 구매행동을 촉진하는 개인적, 규범적, 문화적 요인을 통합적으로 다루고 있다. 모델 관련, 예기된 감정(예기된 자부심과 예기된 죄책감)과 두 가지 상충하는 개인가치(박애주의 가치와 권력 가치)를 공정무역 관련 개인규범 활성화 선행요인으 로 개념화 하였다. 그리고 활성화된 개인규범이 공정무역제품 구매행동에 영향을 주는 것으로 보았고 특히 이들 간의 관계를 문화 클러스터(유교, 라틴 유럽)가 조절하는 것으로 개념화 하였다. 구조방정식을 통해 얻은 실증결 과는 예기된 자부심이 개인규범에 미치는 영향력이 예기된 죄책감 보다 크고, 상충되는 두 가지 개인가치 중 이 타적 가치인 박애주의 가치만이 개인규범에 유의한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 그리고 활성화된 개인규범은 공정무역제품구매 행동에 유의한 영향을 주는 것으로 조사되었다. 문화 클러스터의 조절효과는 다집단비교 구조 방정식을 통해 분석하였다. 검증결과, 해당 경로에 대한 영향력이 라틴 유럽 클러스터 보다 유교 클러스터에서 더 강한 것으로 나타났다. 이러한 결과는 유교 클러스터가 라틴 유럽 클러스터에 비해 직접적인 비용지불에 따른 자기희생 정도가 더 크고, 사회 구성원 기대에 상응하는 도의적 의무감을 강하게 느끼기 때문에 공정무역제품 구 매 행위가 더 강하게 나타난 것으로 해석 가능하다. 본 논문은 규범활성화모델을 활용하여 공정무역제품 구매행 동을 비교 문화적 관점에서 접근하여 윤리적 소비자의 의사결정과정을 실증적으로 구명했다는데 의의가 있다.