In this research, the factors determining the purchase of a product that has been launched as the line extensions of different retail business formats are clarified not only through the purchases of competitor brands, but also through the views of the webpage of the parent brand.Research on the evaluation of line extensions has clarified such relationships as the success or failure of an extension brand and the strength of the parent brand (Reddy et al., 1994), trial and repeat purchases of the extension brand and purchase frequencies of the parent brand (Kim and Sullivan, 1998), the cannibalization of the parent brand by the extension brand (Lomax and McWilliam, 2001), and the interdependence of the extension brand and the parent brand (Sinapuelas et al., 2010). Previous analyses of the factors determining a line extension and their evaluations assumed that consumer purchasing behavior took place within the same retail business format and within a store; as a result, these analyses focused on consumer purchase history data. In this research, in addition to data on the purchase histories of consumers, an attempt was made to ascertain the factors determining a line extension for the horizontal actions of consumers across different retail business formats and stores by applying single-source data, supplemented by data on the access histories of targeted consumer webpages. Specifically, with the specialty coffee shops of Tully’s Coffee (subsequently, TS) and Starbucks Coffee (subsequently, SB) as subjects of the analysis, a binominal logistic regression analysis was applied to investigate the question of whether the purchase or non-purchase of products that these shops launched for convenience stores could be explained by the types of views of the webpages of each of the coffee shops that became the parent brands. The analysis employed single-source data on purchase histories and webpage access histories within i-SSP (Intage Single Source Panel), provided by Intage Inc. The investigation period was the 10 months, from October 2012 to July 2013. As a result of this analysis, the following were established: (1) For both TS and SB, purchases of the extension brands could not be promoted only from the views of the webpage of the extension brands; (2) for both TS and SB, the views of the product webpages of the parent brands promoted purchases of the extension brands; and (3) for SB only, the views of its shop webpage promoted purchases of its extension brand. These are findings that cannot be established using only data on either consumer purchase histories or webpage-access histories. In an analysis of a line extension, they can be ascertained only from webpage access that is related to the parent brand from the direction ascertained for past purchases of competitor products.

In this paper we explore competition as a firm process, rather than as a background economic variable. We contribute by refining firm competition as a process of goal seeking within a context of many actors. First we consider past research on structural and socially constructed competition. We develop a research framework inside relational time, based on the priority of a firm’s line of action, the direction of a firm’s activities, whether primarily towards the customer or first focusing on the activities of another firm. We explore the theoretical distinctions between non-competitive, competitive and rivalry firm activity through an analysis of exporters and importers of fine wine to Denmark from South Australia. We distinguish firm competition from other more complex interactions in a network context. We conclude with managerial implications and the opportunities for future research. The concept of competition in the business-to-business literature shifts meaning depending on the context. The meaning seems to extend along a continuum from rivalry (Porac, Thomas, Wilson, Paton & Kanfer 1995) to coopetition (Bengtsson & Kock 2000). According to McNulty (1968, 639) “There is probably no concept in all of economics that is at once more fundamental and pervasive, yet less satisfactorily developed, than the concept of competition.” In the business-to-business literature competition is defined as structural, where firms seek the same customer or goal (Macdonald & Ryall 2004), or competition is regarded as socially constructed (Porac et al. 1995). Competition is also considered as an interaction process undertaken over time between firms (cf Easton & Araujo 1994; Turnbull, Ford & Cunningham 1996). We pursue only an understanding of the competition process based on a single firm’s activities. Our approach is to focus on this simple form and develop a process based framework to understand competition. We see this as a single step, the first advance towards a framework for analyzing cooperation and competition together (Jarillo 1988).

Although the relationship marketing literature acknowledges the importance of switching costs for increasing customer retention in general, little is known about its relevance in industrial markets. In particular, it is unclear whether switching costs and its dimensions impact relevant behavioral outcomes of buyer-seller relationships in business-to-business (B2B) markets. Against this background, our research intends to make two main contributions: Since we assume differential effects for different types of switching costs, our research first explores the dimensions of switching costs for the B2B domain. Second, it tests the relative impact of the dimensions of switching costs on business customers’ actual purchase behavior. Results suggest that switching costs in B2B settings are a multi-faceted construct, including (i) procedural, (ii) financial, and (iii) relational switching costs. Moreover, we find relational switching costs to be most important for securing B2B buyer-seller relationships since they impact a customer’s (a) share-of-wallet, (b) cross buying behavior, and (c) actual switching behavior. While procedural switching costs only influence share-of-wallet, financial switching costs solely impact customer’s cross-buying behavior across a firm’s product and services categories. These findings contribute to a better understanding about how to secure B2B buyer-seller relationships.

Although the SDL paradigm has contributed to the conceptualization of “value co-creation”, and despite the prioritization of sustainable marketing by business-to-business corporations, the academic literature has failed to study the role played by sustainability in business-to-business (BtoB) value co-creation. Here, using case studies, we examine how business-to-business companies embrace the concept of sustainability to co-create value, and we further develop the theory through a qualitative approach. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between the supplier and customer networks and how the SDL value co-creation translates into business-to-business offering. The customer network is first used by the supplier to create sustainability awareness among end users (social marketing) or to understand their behaviors, whereas the supplier network creates the fit with the customer or end-user expectations for sustainability by delivering a sustainable service targeting performance or supply chain integration (green marketing). The dichotomy between green and social marketing is of high interest for BtoB marketers as in vertical business relationships, upstream companies may implement green marketing but they cannot be certain their efforts will meet the needs of the end users as they have little to no direct contact with these users. Ross et al. (2011) define green marketing, as “companies applying sustainable thinking holistically, from production to post-purchasing service, aiming to balance the company’s need for profit with the wider need to protect the environment”. The authors also recognize that “while companies may do all they can to pursue a green marketing effort to contribute to sustainability, if consumers do not change their own behavior to become more sustainable then little will be achieved” (2011: 149). To overcome this potential hurdle they introduce the concept of “social marketing”, which can be defined as “the systematic application of marketing concepts and techniques, to achieve specific behavioral goals for a social or public good” (French and Blair-Stevens, 2006: 4). If we apply the SDL value co-creation model to this diachronic approach, splitting the production from the use of the product, and even looking at the use of the product across time (i.e., during the product life cycle), then we have to look at the network of actors involved in the different stages of this value co-creation model in a BtoB context. The SDL paradigm implicitly recognizes the value creation network (Lusch and Vargo, 2006), which can be defined as when “actors come together to co-produce value” (Norman and Ramirez, 1994). Cova and Salle (2008: 272) show that to translate the SDL into a BtoB offering, the supplier network must interact with the customer network, “thereby co-creating value with them and for them”. From there, we can suggest that a sustainable value proposition in BtoB will be the process by which companies link the supplier and the customer network while incorporating green and social marketing (Ross et al., 2011). Our findings improve and detail our understanding of this interaction between the supplier and customer networks.

The events industry continues to grow and is estimated to be worth around 30 billion dollars yearly involving more than 50 million trips worldwide. MICE (meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions) offer opportunities for business networking, business development and customer loyalty, and are used for internal company purposes as well as for external commercial gain. However, capturing the value of any given MICE appears difficult and relatively little is known about how customers engage in co-creation and there are few models or frameworks. Moreover, dyadic encounter and value from a provider perspective ignore the measurement of customer value in multi-actor service encounters. The research questions posed by this study were therefore: How do multi-actor service encounters differ from dyadic ones? Do current value frameworks capture all the value created in these encounters? And how can multi-actor service providers increase customer value? To address these questions, we embarked on a qualitative study with 35 actors (attendees, organizers, speakers) from networking events, using a service-dominant logic approach to conceptualizing customer perceived value from networking events. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first empirical studies to address the joint creation of value in service encounters characterised by multiple providers (provider network approach) and multiple customers (customer group approach) at the same time and studied from the perspectives of both sides. In answering our first research question of how do multi-actor service encounters different from dyadic ones, we first identify several characteristics that define multi-actor services and compare them to traditional one-to-one services. Our second research question asked whether current value taxonomies capture all the value created in these encounters and we conceptualised the dimensions of event value (social, professional, learning, emotional and hedonic), and show how these relate to existing value taxonomies, as well as highlighting professional value which is new and novel to event encounters. Thirdly, in answering how multi-actor service providers can increase customer value, we supplement previous research on customer value from the providers’ view by adding how the design and execution of service impacts customer value. From this managerial perspective, our study brings new perspectives for event management in understanding when and where value is created and therefore when and how it should be measured. In terms of assessing interaction and engagement, we have found that few practices are in place. We suggest that observation within an event setting could be complemented by video recording.

This study is concerned with the extent to which network-oriented behaviors directly and/or indirectly affect firm performance. We posit that a firm’s interactive behaviors in relation to an embedded network structure are key mechanisms that facilitate the development of important organizational capabilities in dealing with business partners. Such network-oriented behaviors, which are aimed at affecting the position of a company in the network, are consequently important drivers of firm performance, rather than the network structure alone. We develop a conceptual model that captures network-oriented behaviors as a driving force of firm performance in relation to three other key organizational behaviors, i.e. customer-oriented, competitor-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors. We test the hypothesized model using a data set of 354 responses collected via an on-line questionnaire from UK managers, whose organizations operate in business-to-business markets in either manufacturing or services sectors. Based on the research results all the hypothesized relationships are supported, except the moderation effect of technological turbulence on the relationship of network-oriented behaviors and relationship portfolio effectiveness. The research results indicate that a firm’s network-oriented behaviors positively impact on the development of customer-oriented and competitor-oriented behaviors. They also foster relationship coordination with its important business partners within the network. In addition, the effective management of the firm’s portfolio of relationships is found to mediate the positive impact of network-oriented behaviors on firm profitability.

The catching-up process of the emerging economies of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) towards the average income level in Western Europe has driven the marketing strategies of Western multinational companies (MNC) so far. Particularly, the boom years from 2002 to 2008 with an average GDP growth for the region of more than 6% (Becker et al., 2010) fuelled the notion that soon a large European market with similar demand and market structures will exist that will allow Western MNCs to sell their international brands in a highly standardized way in the whole region. The Great Recession of 2008-09 stopped this convergence process and highlighted the still existing differences in consumer behavior (Schuh, 2012). The recessionary developments in the aftermath of the crisis have shown that this is more of a structural problem than a temporary one (Labaye et al., 2013). The Western firms now have to acknowledge that many product markets are not “structural twins” of Western markets with a strong upper- and mid-price segment but that CEE markets are rather shaped like bottom heavy pyramids. By just transferring brand strategies developed for high-income economies to emerging markets they ignore large segments of the mass market. To tap these market segments MNCs have to think how they can make their products affordable to these lower-income consumers, i.e. bring-ing the purchase of a product within the financial means of a consumer or household. The neglect of low-income segments may be either a deliberate decision based on the well-proven inherent business logic of Western branded good marketers (“stick to our success-ful way of doing business”) or a blind spot in the strategic approach to emerging markets (Sheth, 2011). The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, a case is made for the relevance of affordability concepts to CEE markets; second, three case studies of affordability initiatives of leading fast-moving consumer goods companies are analyzed in order to get a better understanding of how these firms approach the affordability issue and what are the success factors of such strategies in CEE. Most of the existing emerging market literature is dealing with very low income consum-ers in Southeast Asia, Latin America and Africa earning less than US- 2,500 p.a. (Prahalad, 2005; London & Hart, 2011; Khanna & Palepu, 2010). While the coverage of the “bottom of the pyramid” is regarded as an extreme stretch for most Western firms, more attention is paid to the growing middle class in the emerging markets (Court & Narashimhan, 2010). The steady growth of the middle-class in the emerging economies is promising rising sales for the future and at the same time supporting the notion that West-ern MNCs can continue with their business model and just have to “wait for the market”. The rapidly growing middle class consumers in emerging markets include almost 2 billion people with a total spending of US- 6.9 trillion annually which will expand to US-20 trillion within the next decade (Court & Narasimhan, 2010). Surprisingly, lead-ing Western MNCs approach the affordability issues in the context of CEE rather defen-sively and reluctantly (Schuh, 2012). This may be resulting from the belief that the eco-nomic catching-up process will bring CEE consumers to a similar standard of living as in the “old” EU and any investment in products for the lower-segments would be only of temporary value. Therefore, CEE countries are not seen as the typical candidates for affordability strategies. This may be partly true for the most advanced Central European countries and Russia with rapidly rising household incomes in the last decade. But the economic downturn and the following recessionary development has shattered the consumption model that was based to a high degree on credit financing in those markets too. Moreover, studies show that there exists a high share of low-income households and price-sensitive consumers in CEE. According to the “Life in Transition” survey the mid-dle-class ranges from 4% in Albania to 27% in Slovenia – in between you can find Poland with 16% and Russia with 18% (EBRD, 2007). Pfeifer, Massen and Bombka (2007) estimate that 56% of the consumers or 57 million people, in Eastern Europe are low-income consumers (< 10,000 in PPP per year). In addition, in Russia and Ukraine 70% of the populations are falling in this category. A study of Roland Berger Strategy Consultants (2008) on “Consumer Archetypes in CEE” identified seven basic consumer types in CEE. Three out of them – the “self-centered consumers” (18% of population), “minimalists” (14%) and “rationalists” (12%) – can be classified as highly price-sensitive. Together, these three highly price-conscious consumer types make up 44% of the CEE market. What is more, other identified consumer types with less distinct price sensitivity could be taken into account as well. In total, these consumer types whose purchasing behavior is influenced predominantly by affordability amount to 56% of all CEE consumers. Summing up, the studies provide divergent figures of the size of the middle class and low-income segment in CEE. Different methodological approaches, classifications, and data bases are the reasons for these variations (Kharas, 2010). However, the findings show that the market below the middle class in CEE is a large one, accounting for more than 60% of the population of a country. The strategies that are used to address low-in-come consumers are described by the so-called “4 A’s”: affordability, acceptability, availability and awareness (Anderson & Markides, 2007). Affordability as a strategy con-cept can be defined as all measures of a company that aim at bringing the purchase of a product within the financial means of a consumer or household (or business). In the literature you can find different approaches towards this goal. Firms typically start with marginal changes in their marketing strategy (e.g., different packages, single portions). However, to tap the lower-end of these price-sensitive mass-markets and to reach non-consumers of your products changes have to go beyond rebranding and adapted market-ing elements. New business models with deeper and more comprehensive changes in product development and architecture of the supply-chain are needed to be successful in this segment (Johnson, Christensen & Kagermann, 2008). The purpose of the empirical part of this study is to get a better understanding of motives, goals and success factors of affordability initiatives addressing the countries of CEE. A case study approach is the best way to learn about underlying assumptions and considera-tions of managers involved in the decision-making process (Yin, 2009). The cases consist of two parts: a) a general company profile describing businesses, geographic presence and goals; b) the role of affordability for tapping emerging markets and the description of affordability initiatives in CEE countries. Globally active consumer goods companies in the food sector from USA and Western Europe were chosen as target firms: They ex-panded strongly into emerging markets and CEE in the last years, play a pioneer role in tapping low-income markets and exemplify the sought-after strategic constellation for this research, i.e. an MNC expanding from a traditional “premium-position” into lower-price segments. In addition, food companies serving broad segments of the population are faced with social responsibility issues, namely if they legitimately can deny people access to their products. So far three cases of Western companies with an extensive presence in emerging markets are available (see overview in Table 1). The results show that affordability is part of the marketing strategies in CEE of all these selected companies. A considerable share of the product portfolio and overall sales vol-ume in their CEE country organizations stem from affordable products. Higher growth rates of this segment than the overall market prove that there is a demand for this type of products. And it seems that these companies don’t see an insurmountable conflict in pursuing the two-pronged approach as indicated in the literature. All affordability strate-gies are run under a business perspective. They have to contribute to the growth and profitability goals, although social motives are mentioned as strong arguments too. The case of company A nicely shows how the affordability initiative started as a CSR project and then evolved into a business project. During this process they learned that they can make a “sustainable business case” out of it. This step was a break with so far existing concepts in the company, as it involved product development targeted to the demand and financial conditions of low-income households. Country organizations decide individu-ally if and to what degree they use affordability initiatives. In our cases Russian, Polish and Romanian subsidiaries were interested in the introduction of affordable products and looking for support within the group. The establishment of competence centers for affordability initiatives at global headquarters is a clear indication that a central hub is needed which provides basic strategy guidelines, offers assistance in the introduction of such initiatives and spreads best practices in the group. However, differences can be found in the market and branding strategy. While company A is using local brands in combination with the company brand, company C is using a strict two-tier strategy. Inter-national brands are sold parallel to local/regional ones which are used for the entry into the lower-income segment. Company B is covering all price points within a category with the international brand. So the brand stretches from the super-premium, premium and mainstream to the affordability segment. 4,000 “good value for money products” are sold worldwide today, in CEE the affordable category accounts for 25% of total turnover and grows twice as fast as the whole zone Europe. The differences can be explained via the basic approach towards branding: are they following a House of Brands or a Branded House architecture. As far as success factors are concerned all three cases show that the successful introduction of an affordable product range is based on (a) a commitment of the organization to the development of affordable products; (b) deep understanding of consumer behavior, buying patterns, and market situation; (c) utilization of synergies with higher priced brands; (d) focus on volume and scale via covering a large consumer base and (e) radical cost cutting along the whole value chain. In our ongoing research we try to increase the number of companies which run affordability initiatives to be able to cover a greater variety of industry and company types. Our research shows that multi-tier and affordability strategies can be found in other consumer and industrial markets in CEE too. This research shall help to clarify for which type of company it makes sense to ex-pand to lower-income segments. While so far the internal perspective was in the center of our research attention, market and competitive constellations should be covered in the future too.

This exploratory study conducts the difference of e-business implementation of each industry in Japan. According to factor analysis, 9 e-business contents are classified into four factors. Then, as a result of cluster analysis using the four factors, industries are classified into five clusters according to the grade of execution of e-business, and the contents of execution. Online networks including internet have given rise to the digital economy to support electronic business (e-business) activities. But it varies according to a type of industry because how enterprises perform e-business. The purpose of working on e-business is also the same. This study shows that the implementation status of e-business of each industry. E-business using online networks are various, such as not only e-commerce but also activities inside the company. The former examples are sales or purchase trading, and the latter examples are activities of a direct department called production or physical distribution, and a back-office section called accounts or personnel. In addition, purposes of enterprises perform e-business may be various, for example sales expansion, and cost reduction, information sharing. In Japan, before the Internet known as an open online network spreads, former closed online network such as VAN; Value Added Network has been popular to companies in 1980’s. Therefore, companies could use e-business in internal business process integration or to specific partners. The examples are Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), Supply Chain Management (SCM), Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). But in fact, e-commerce is more popular than other e-business. That may be why effects come out of e-commerce in the short term, such as reduction of office work cost, improvement in customer satisfaction, or the reduction of an input cost. Iacovou et al(1995) recommends the development of successful EDI partner expansion plans, which include EDI initiators pursue promotional efforts to improve partners’ (especially small partners’) perceptions of EDI benefits, provide financial and technological assistance to partners with low organizational readiness, and carefully select and enact influence strategies to reduce resistance. Fisher(1997) concludes the effectiveness of SCM varies according to the matrix of product properties and purpose of SCM. From the viewpoint of marketing partnership, Doney et al(1997) shows that supplier size and supplier's willingness to customer have a positive impact on buyers’ trust. Chatterjee et al(2002) shows that companies structuring e-commerce platform should have top management championship, strategic investment rationale, and extent of coordination. According to these studies, the effectiveness of e-business changes in the factor inside and outside the company such as the relations with a type of industry and the trading partner. MTI(2006) shows the result of a questionnaire companies of Japan and USA why to introduce e-commerce. According to this survey, Japanese companies think as important cost reductions, such as a request from a customer, and increase in efficiency of ordering business, to the USA companies think as important sales expansions, such as new customer acquisition and expansion of a sales channel. SMEA(2009), belongs to MTI, shows SMEs which consider “reduction of trading costs” to be a benefit are greatest in number, but when looked at in terms of employee size, the smaller the enterprise, the larger the number citing that it is “easy to acquire new customers.” These suggest engaging e-commerce actively is important as a means of acquiring customers for small companies as well. MIC(2012) shows the result of an annualy mail survey with about 2,000 enterprises; 87.5% of companies have built a company communication network such as internet, the percentage of businesses using e-commerce (procurement/sales via the Internet) is 44.5%, and the percentage of businesses using at least a part of a cloud computing serviceis 21.6%, which is 7.5 percentage points more than the 14.1% rate at the end of 2010. This study conducts a statistical secondary analysis using large-scale survey. The original survey is “Results of the Basic Survey of Business and Activity on March 31, 2009” provided Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry in Japan. The survey is somewhat old because they survey each 5 years. The survey is a mail on self-declaration forms given to enterprises which engaged in business with both a minimum capital of 30 million yen and 50 or more employees. Questions include size and profit of enterprises, online network usage and e-business implementation. It covers over 28,000 enterprises which operate mining, manufacturing, and wholesale and retail trade, and eating and drinking places. This study analyzes the semi total data for every 103 types of industry because the reply for each enterprise is not disclosed, and conducts descriptive statistics. An exploratory factor analysis revealed 4 factors from 10 variables on a sample of 103 industries. Table1 shows that pattern matrix after Promax rotation with Maximum Likelihood extraction. As the factor loadings of Sales, Inventory and Distribution are high, 1st factor can be named as “Sales division”. Like the following, 2nd factor is “In-company management”, 3rd factor is “Procurement” and 4th factor is “Manufacturing”. e-business implementation can be classified into “Sales division”, “I n-company management”, “Procurement” and “Manufacturing”. This suggests the priority matter of each enterprise is reflected. First, a type of industry to suffer from the competition with others by sales markets to work on customer satisfactions or marketing tackles “Sales division”. Second, “In-company management” could be important for a type of industry to push forward information integration and employee management in the enterprise or the cost cut of the indirect section. Third, Industries which work on cost reduction with strong bargaining ability to the supplier could be tackling “procurement” e-business. And some manufacturing industries work on “manufacturing” e-business. In order to classify 103 industries according to e-business implementation, cluster analysis is conducted with factor scores observed the analysis. Figure 1 is a result of hierarchical cluster analysis applying the Ward Linkage method. It is divided into five clusters. Table 2 is average factor score & characteristics of each cluster. The analysis shows the characteristic of the type of industry to perform e-business. Cluster 5 which contains only electricity is firstly classified as other types of industry. The cluster has the highest score except “Sales Division” than other clusters. Cluster 3 and 4 work on e-business more positively than Cluster 1 and 2. Cluster 1 has very low score especially “Sales division” and “In-company management”. The reason may be why it has traditional manufacture such as mining and wood manufacture. Cluster 2 has also low score especially “Manufacturing” because it has traditional distributor sector such as apparel, agricultural or furniture wholesales. Therefore, “Sales Division” is performed better than other e-business. On the other hand, Cluster 3 has high score other than manufacturing because it has non-store retailer and electrical or motor wholesales. Many of them work on e-commerce because they satisfy customers and compete with others, and procure products to reduce costs. And Cluster 4 has major manufacture industries such as electronic, motor vehicles and communication, which work on e-business totally. In conclusion, the difference of e-business implementation of each industry reflects on market structure. This study has two limitations. First, as the data used for this analysis is already totaled for every type of industry, the reply situation for each company is not reflected. Though the government statistics are collecting data comprehensively, it is very rare to have released each data because of privacy. After taking into consideration in a respondent's privacy, an indication of individual data is desired. Second, the purpose or attitude companies work on e-business are not taken into consideration though analyzed based on the implementation rate of e-business. Not only action data but attitude data and consciousness data are important. The future research should analyze why companies work on e-business through an interview or questionnaire survey.

Although the role of Guanxi in the Chinese business to business (B2B) market as a form of relationship marketing has received increasing attention in recent years, few empirical studies have explicitly distinguished between Guanxi and relationship marketing. Westerners typically consider Guanxi as unethical, but foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) may have some difficulty in fully practicing relationship marketing in China without considering the influence of Chinese culture. In this regard, this study is guided by the following research question: “In China, should foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) adopt Guanxi instead of relationship marketing in the B2B market?” In this study, we first provide an overview of previous research on Guanxi, focusing on the fundamental differences between Guanxi and relationship marketing. We then provide an empirical analysis of the differential effects of Guanxi and relationship marketing on firm performance by investigating 295 FIEs in the Chinese B2B market. The results suggest that Guanxi and relationship marketing are not trade-off options in today’s Chinese market. Guanxi and relationship marketing have synergetic effects on firm performance, that is, they have differential effects based on the mode of market entry and the type of competitor. Guanxi is more likely to influence firm performance for collaboration based entry firms rather than entry without collaboration firms, whereas relationship marketing is more likely to influence firm performance when FIEs’ main competitors are foreign firms than when they are local firms.

This paper reviewed the effects of job characteristics(role conflicts, emotional labor, job importance and job autonomy) on satisfaction and stress, and the moderating effect of social support. Based on 2,982 questionnaires among raw data of Korea Safety and Health Agency's national survey, the results of multiple regression analysis appeared as follow; 1) role conflict effect negatively on job satisfaction, and emotional labor, job importance and job autonomy effect positively on job satisfaction. 2) role conflict effect positively on stress, and emotional labor, job importance and job autonomy effect negatively on stress. 3) social support moderates positively 2 relationships-between role conflict and job satisfaction, between job autonomy and job satisfaction, but moderates negatively between job autonomy and stress.

This paper reviewed the relationship between safety climate(management commitment, safety education, preventive activity) and safety participation, and the mediating effect of safety motivation(intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) in small business employee. Based on the responses from 270 employees, the results of multiple regression analysis appeared as follow; 1) management commitment, safety education, and preventive activity effect positively on intrinsic/extrinsic safety motivation. 2) management commitment, safety education, and preventive activity effect positively on safety participation. 3) intrinsic and extrinsic safety motivation effect positively on safety participation. 4) intrinsic safety motivation mediates between 3 climate factors(management commitment, safety education, preventive activity) and safety participation. 5) extrinsic safety motivation mediates between only management commitment and safety participation.

This study aims at observing effect of global R&D cooperation outcome and global business ability of small businesses by national aid program. Also, this study aims to observe between national aid program and global R&D cooperation outcome. As a result, the national aid programs can be used to get global level technique and develop global markets. Also, the programs can positive effects to the small businesses for making global network and ability. They can be good methods for growing as global small businesses in the world.

북한산국립공원은 1983년 4월 국립공원으로 지정되어 현재 우이, 정릉, 구기, 불광, 산성, 도봉, 송추지구 총 7개 지구로 구분되어 관리되고 있다. 연간 약 30만명이 찾는 북한산국립공원 송추계곡은 국립공원 지정 이전인 1963년 에 서울 교외선 철도가 개통되면서 유원지로 개발되어 수영 장, 음식점 등 영업시설 증가 및 계절적, 집단적 불법무질서 행위(청객행위, 자릿세 징수, 계곡점유 등)가 반복적으로 발 생되었다. 이러한 계곡 내 인위적 교란으로 인해 생물서식 처가 위협되고 계곡 주변 상업시설 난립으로 인한 경관 불 량과 불법행위 예방단속으로 인한 주민과의 갈등 심화 등의 문제점이 지속적으로 야기되어 왔다. 이에 국립공원관리공 단에서는 송추계곡 주변 환경 개선, 불법 영업 행위 근절, 재해위험지구 정비 등 송추이주사업을 통해 국립공원의 지 속가능성 확대와 21세기 국가 생태경쟁력 제고에 기여하고 자 2001년 이주사업 조사 연구 시행, 2011년 이주단지 조성 사업시행계획 결정 고시 등 사업을 추진하고 있으며, 2013 년 철거지 보상 및 철거를 실시하였다. 건강성 평가는 자연생태계 변화에 따른 공원의 안정성 유지를 위해 공원별 특성을 반영한 측정항목(Key factor)을 선정하고 평가하는 수단이다. 공원별 생물, 서식환경의 변 화과정 및 기능, 외부 영향요인을 종합적으로 평가하여 지 역의 건강성을 진단하고, 최종적으로 공원에 가장 적합하고 관리쟁점화 되어있는 항목에 대하여 변화를 측정하는 것이 다. 이에 본 연구는 송추이주사업 대상지의 현재 자연생태 계 자료를 분석하여 건강성 평가 개념과 방향을 설정하고, 북한산국립공원 송추계곡 특성을 반영한 합리적이고 특성 있는 건강성 평가 지표를 제시하고자 하였다. 설정된 지표 별로 세부 기준 및 모니터링 범위를 설정하여 사후 모니터 링 방법을 제안하였다. 연구대상지는 북한산국립공원 송추계곡 일원으로 면적 은 121,980㎡이었고, 주변 영향권을 고려하여 유역권까지 설정하였다. 수환경 부문으로 수질은 기본적인 수질항목을 중심으로 총 3회 실시하였으며, 수질 측정 지점은 상류, 중 류, 하류로 구분하여 3~5개 지점을 설정하였고, 하상구조, 하안구조, 계곡시설물(보 및 교량)을 조사ㆍ분석하였다. 식 물생태 분야로 식물상은 철거예정지 내부지역의 정해진 루 트를 따라 봄철과 여름철 2차례에 걸쳐 조사하였다. 대상지 내에 출현하는 모든 식물종은 리스트를 작성하여 자생종, 귀화종, 외래종으로 구분하였고, 귀화율과 도시화지수를 산 출하였다. 비오톱 현황은 철거지역을 대상으로 생태적 영향 을 줄 수 있는 요인을 고려하여 조사하였다. 동물생태에서 는 야생조류, 양서류, 포유류 조사를 실시하였으며, 야생조 류 조사는 line transect 방법에 의하여 종명, 개체수 등을 파악하고 대상지 내부와 외부를 구분하여 조사하였다. 양서 류는 계곡을 따라 돌 밑 혹은 웅덩이 등을 조사하여 성체, 유생, 알덩이를 확인하였다. 포유류는 직접관찰법을 이용 하여 대표적인 포유류의 주요 서식지 현황과 먹이를 먹은 흔적, 배설물, 휴식 및 보금자리 흔적 등을 통한 흔적조사 를 실시하여 대상지 내부와 외부의 종 목록과 분포현황을 작성하였다. 북한산국립공원 송추계곡의 하상구조는 하상이 암반으 로 이루어진 지역이 전체 면적(25,445㎡)의 48.3%로 대부 분을 차지하였고 그 외 잔돌, 모래, 호박돌, 콘크리트 등이었 다. 또한 인공 하상구조로 일부 암반 훼손지(2.8%)와 콘크 리트 하상(0.9%)이 분포하였다. 하안구조는 자연형 호안이 2,117m(48.0%)로 가장 길었고, 자연하안(암반)은 293m (6.7%)이었다. 그 외 인공+자연형호안 1,443m(32.8%), 인 공호안 244m(5.5%), 인공호안+자연하안 306m(7.0%)이었다. 계곡 내 조성되어 있는 시설물은 교량 17개소, 보 19개 소 등 총 36개소의 시설물이 분포하였다. 콘크리트 보가 9개소로 가장 많았고, 돌쌓기 임시 보(8개소), 콘크리트 교 량(7개소), 철재 임시 교량(6개소) 등이 조성되어 있었다. 송추계곡 수계의 유속과 수심, 유량 분석결과 유속 0.043~0.047m/sec, 수심 0.68~0.69m, 유량 0.22~0.23㎥ /sec이었다. 수질은 대부분의 조사지점에서 환경부 하천수 질환경기준 Ⅰb등급의 ‘좋음’에 해당하였고, 2013년 8월 (여름철) 수질 분석결과 송추계곡 하류부로 갈수록 COD, SS, T-N, T-P 수치가 높아졌고, 총 대장균이 일부 검출되었 다. 식물생태 중 식물상 조사결과 봄철과 여름철 총 66과 137 종 18변종 4품종 총 159종류(taxa)가 관찰되었다. 관찰된 식물 중 외래종은 귀화종 15종을 포함하여 31종이었고, 자 생종은 128종이었다. 분석결과 귀화율 9.4%, 도시화지수 4.7%이었고, 달뿌리풀, 갈풀 등 계곡변 분포하는 습윤지성 식물이 9종 분포하였다. 철거예정지역의 토양피복 현황은 녹지가 53.6%로 대부분의 면적을 차지하는 가운데, 투수성 포장재료(23.1%), 불투수성 포장재료(12.9%), 건폐지 (9.9%) 등이 분포하였고, 계곡변 평탄지를 따라 상업지 등 불투수지역이 대면적으로 분포하고 있어 이에 대한 개선이 필요하였다. 동물생태 부문에서 야생조류 현황 분석결과 대상지 내 4계절 전체 출현 야생조류는 총 21종 103개체이었으며, 대 상지 외부에서는 21종 62개체가 관찰되어 총 33종 165개체 이었다. 이른 아침 계곡 하류지역에서 물총새가 출현하였 고, 법적보호종으로 천연기념물인 황조롱이와 원앙이 송추 계곡 주변 울대습지에서 각각 1개체씩 출현하였다. 박새가 최대개체수 25개체로 가장 많았고, 오목눈이와 양진이가 각 각 최대개체수 15개체씩 출현하였다. 양서류는 도롱뇽, 계 곡산개구리, 북방산개구리, 한국산개구리 등 4종이 출현하 였고, 주요 출현지역은 쌍용식당 상류지역을 중심으로 계곡 산개구리 알덩이 710덩이 및 도롱뇽 알덩이 12덩이가 분포 하였다. 송추계곡은 다양한 양서류의 산란이 확인되어 북한 산국립공원 계곡 내 주요 양서류 산란지로서의 기능을 수행 하고 있는 것으로 판단되었다. 대상지 주변 포유류는 고라 니, 들고양이, 멧돼지, 청설모 등 4종의 성체 또는 흔적이 확인되었다. 철거대상지 내부에서는 들고양이가 4개체 출 현하였고, 그 외 고라니 등 포유류 흔적은 대상지 외부 울대 습지 인근지역에서 다수 관찰되었다. 유원지 성격이 강한 북한산국립공원 송추계곡은 이주사 업을 실시함으로써 다양한 환경변화가 이루어 질 것이다. 따라서 송추계곡의 생태계 건강성 평가 지표는 수환경, 식 물, 동물 등의 생태계 현황을 종합하여 이주사업 및 복원 효과 검증이 가능하고 향후 국립공원 내 계곡 복원 평가 및 관리에 활용할 수 있는 항목으로 선정하였다. 지표 선정 결과 의미있는 건강성 평가 지표 항목은 생물 서식처 기반 및 교란영향 관리에 해당하는 하상구조, 호안 구조, 계곡시설물, 유량, 수질, 시설지역 현황 등 6개, 계곡 복원에 따른 생물다양성 변화에 해당하는 식물상(귀화종 종 수, 습윤지성 식물 종수), 야생조류, 양서류(도롱뇽 및 계곡 산개구리 알덩이 수), 포유류 등 6개로 총 12개이었다. 이에 따라 북한산국립공원 송추계곡 건강성 평가 세부 기준 및 모니터링 범위를 설정하였다. 생물서식처 기반 및 교란영향 관리 분야 지표 항목별 기준과 모니터링 범위에서 훼손된 하상구조 면적 및 비율의 기준은 암반 훼손지 717㎡ (2.8%), 콘크리트 타설 125㎡(0.5%), 콘크리트 타설+암반 훼손지 217㎡(0.9%), 돌쌓기 242㎡(1.0%)이었고 모니터링 은 훼손지역을 대상으로 연 1회를 제시하였다. 인공적 호안 길이 및 비율의 기준은 인공호안 244m(5.5%), 인공+자연 형호안 1,443m(32.8%), 인공호안+자연하안 306m(7.0%) 이었고 인공지역을 대상으로 연 1회를 제안하였다. 교량 및 보 개소수 기준은 교량 17개소, 보 19개소이었고 시설물 분포지역을 대상으로 연 1회, 유량 기준은 ①지점 유속 0.047m/sec 수심 0.69m 유량 0.23㎥/sec, ②지점 유속 0.043m/sec 수심 0.68m 유량 0.22㎥/sec로 2개 지점을 대상 으로 계절별 1회와 여름철 추가 측정을 제시하였다. 수질은 총 대장균군을 지표 항목으로 상류, 중류, 하류 3~5개 지점 을 대상으로 계절별 1회를 제안하였다. 불투수지역, 투수지 역 나지 면적 및 비율 기준은 불투수지역 27,726㎡(22.8%), 투수지역 나지 28,220㎡(23.1%), 녹지지역 65,372㎡ (53.6%)이었고, 대상지 내부를 대상으로 모니터링 연 1회 를 제시하였다. 계곡 복원에 따른 생물다양성 변화 분야 지표 항목별 기 준과 모니터링 범위를 살펴보면, 귀화종 종수 기준은 15종 이었고, 습윤지성 식물 종수는 9종(갈풀, 궁궁이, 돌나물, 물푸레나무, 버드나무, 수양버들, 오리나무, 달뿌리풀, 물억 새)이었다. 식물상은 대상지 내부 계절별 1회(겨울철 제외) 를 제시하였다. 대상지 내부 야생조류 수변서식종 종수 및 개체수는 2종 3개체이었고, 대상지 내부를 대상으로 계절별 1회를 제시하였다. 쌍용식당 상류/하류 도롱뇽 알덩이 수의 기준은 상류 12덩이, 하류는 없는 상태이었고, 쌍용식당 상 류/하류 계곡산개구리 알덩이 수의 기준은 상류 710덩이, 하류 173덩이이었다. 양서류 모니터링 범위는 대상지 내부 를 대상으로 도롱뇽과 계곡산개구리 산란시기인 3월 초~4 월 말에 조사하는 것으로 제안하였다. 포유류 종수는 1종이 었고, 대상지 내부를 대상으로 겨울철 1회를 제시하였다

The purpose of this study is to examine the influence that factors for a successful venture have on business performance. To fulfill this goal, factors for a successful venture are presupposed as the four elements of business creator, technological innovation, type of strategy, and organization, while business performance is set as subordinate variable, with a view to creating a model and establishing a hypothesis for a positive analysis. Data collection for the positive analysis was conducted using a questionnaire, and as for sampling, of the companies located in Seoul and greater metropolitan region and registered with Small and Medium Business Administration as of late December 2012, 98 companies have been selected for the final data. And I have come up with the two following results. First, factors for venture success have all proven to exercise statistically significant influence on business performance. Second, of all factors for venture success, business creator and technological innovation exercise huge influence on business performance, as compared to the other factors. From these two conclusions, it is understood that to upgrade business performance of a venture, business creator and technological innovation should be given priority over the other factors.

The objective of the present study is to analyze the relationship of suppliers and customer participation in product development process and effects of such participation on product innovation since it is getting more and more weight in manufacturing companies. It is also aimed in this study to explore if business performance of manufacturing companies might be affected by the suppliers participation as well as product innovation that is realizable by such participation. From the analysis, following conclusions could be drawn: First, suppliers participation in manufacturing companies turned out to have influence upon product innovation (standardized coefficient=0.193, C.R=3.510), implying that nothing is more important than the role of suppliers who have intention to realize innovation through participation in manufacturing companies. Second, the analysis showed that customer participation exercised impact upon product innovation of manufacturing companies (standardized coefficient=0.686, C.R=6.433), suggesting that the more customer participate in product development process of manufacturing companies, the more manufacturing companies could sharpen their competitiveness. Third, it was made known from the analysis that the product innovation thanks to suppliers and customer participation in manufacturing companies could have influence upon their business performance (standardized coefficient=0.762, C.R=7.666), signifying that the product innovation of manufacturing companies might depend on the participation of suppliers and manufacturers and, in turn, could affect their own business performance.

This study analyzed fashion businesses based on the 6P's, products, prices, place, promotion, people, and patron for business owners in the Myeongdong commercial fashion district. Furthermore, this study proposed plans that would activate the Myeongdong fashion district and continuously develop it as a global fashion city. A survey was conducted from August to September, 2012 for 249 fashion business owners in Myeongdong. Eventually, only 208 questionnaires were used for the analysis. The research results were as follows. First, domestic brands have the largest share in the market and sales of fashion accessories were higher than the sales of clothes. Second, the prices for those fashion items ranged from low to mid-price. Third, the opening of new shops keeps increasing, and the size of the shops falls between ten and twenty pyeong generally. 'Self-production' was the highest form of production compared to any other form, and regarding importation sites, importation from overseas was the highest. Fourth, regarding promotion types, the sales in shops was the most commonly used promotion method compared to television and magazine advertising, and personal selling. Fifth, the proportion of male proprietors was larger than that of female proprietors. Most employees had less than five years of sales experience. Sixth, the main customers were females in their 20s and the proportions of Korean and foreign customers was similar.

This paper reviewed the mediating effects of knowledge sharing between social capital(interaction, trust, shared vision) and innovation(radical innovation, incremental innovation) in small businesses. Based on the responses from 337 responses, the results of mediating effect analysis and path analysis showed that interaction and shared vision effect positively on radical innovation and incremental innovation via knowledge sharing or directly, but trust effects positively only on incremental innovation. Social capital and knowledge sharing have more effects on incremental innovation than on radical innovation.