- 일반적 특징 - 나방파리를 보통 drain fly 그리고 sewer fly 또는 filter fly 라고도 부르며, 몸과 날개에 많은 털을 가지고 있다. 주로 하수구 주변에서 볼 수 있고, 소형 곤충으로 몸 길이는 3-4mm 정도인데, 체색은 대체로 검은색을 띄나 갈색으로 보이기도 한다. 분류는 날개시맥의 독특한 특징으로 종을 구별한다. 나방파리의 주요 서식처는 하수구(관), 정화조, 오물로 오염된 토양에서 주로 발생한다. - 생물학적 특징 - 1. 완전변태를 하며 생활사 기간은 8-24일 정도이다. 2. 적절한 유기물과 습기가 있는 곳에 약 30-100개의 알을 집단으로 산란한다. 3. 알은 48시간 이내에 부화한다. 4. 알을 불규칙하게 세워 산란하는데: 더러운 음식쓰레기를 모은 곳, 배관시설에 고인 물, 오수 필터, 유기물이 부패한 장소에 주로 산란한다. 5. 유충과 번데기는 하수, 정화조 안의 얇은 젤라틴 같은 막에서 볼 수 있으며, 침전물이나 썩은 식물체 그리고 미세한 식물성과 동물성 물질을 먹고 산다. 6. 유충기간은 9-15일 이며, 번데기 기간은 20-40시간 정도이고, 우화한 성충은 성적으로 성숙해지고 수 시간 내에 교미하며, 성충의 수명은 보통 2주이다. 7. 성충은 비행력이 약하고, 휴식하는 벽면에 기어가는 듯이 보이기도 하며, 비 상할 때는 짧은 거리를 날고 높이 날지 못한다. 8. 휴식은 배관시설물이나 벽면의 그늘진 곳에서 휴식하며, 야간활동성이다. - 관리 - 1. 서식처(발생원)를 파악하는 것이 매우 중요 2. 욕실바닥의 잦은 청소 및 물이 고이지 않도록 관리3. 반 밀폐된 발생원 주변에 공간살포: 정화조 내 물이 차 있지 않은 벽면에 휴 식하는 나방파리도 방제할 수 있도록 조치해야함 4. 발생원에 고농도의 IGR(성장억제제) 처리: 물 사용을 자제해야 함 5. 욕조 하부의 빈 공간에 물이 고이면 발생원이 되므로 공간 내 에어로솔 살포 6. 제한된 공간 내에는 전기살충기, 유인등을 이용한 끈끈이 활용 7. 성충과 유충을 동시에 방제할 수 있는 시스템 운영

As an environment-friendly phytosanitary measure, CATTS (controlled atmosphere temperature treatment system) has been developed to kill several quarantine insect pests infesting subtropical agricultural commodities. This study tested any possibility to apply CATTS to apples to effectively eliminate the peach fruit moth, Carposina sasakii, which has been regarded as a quarantine insect from the imported countries. When the larvae of C. sasakii were directly exposed to 46℃ (an installed lethal temperature of CATTS), they showed a median lethal time at 14.66 min. Addition of high carbon dioxide to the temperature treatment enhanced the thermal limit susceptibility of C. sasakii to 46℃. The larvae internally infesting apples were tested using this CATTS device and showed 100% lethality after 60 min exposure to a treatment of 46℃ under 15% CO2 in the chamber. This study suggests a possibility that CATTS can be applied as a quarantine measure to kill the larvae of C. sasakii locating inside the apples. To understand the CATTS effect, a heat shock protein was cloned. Hsp90 was partially sequenced and showed its expression in response to heat treatment. CATTS was likely to suppress hsp90 expression.

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is effective to control the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella. However, its relative slow and unstable control efficacy limits its wide use by farmers. To facilitate pathogenic rate of Bt, a bacterial mixture technique has been developed in this study. Two entomopathogenic bacteria, Xenorhabdus nematophila (Xn) and Photorhabdus temperata temperata (Ptt), possess high immunosuppressive activity against several lepidopteran insects. The mixture treatments using Bt + Xn or Bt + Ptt significantly enhanced Bt pathogenicity in median lethal concentration and time. Though live Xn and Ptt bacterial cells gave significant effect on the pathogenicity, their 48 h culture broth after removing the bacterialcells still possessed the synergistic effect on the Bt pathogenicity. The larvae fed with the bacterial culture broth suffered significant immunosuppression in response bacterial to infection

A polydnavirus, Cotesia plutellae bracovirus (CpBV), possesses segmented genome located on chromosome(s) of an endoparasitoid wasp, C. plutellae. An episomal viral segment (CpBV-S3) consists of 11,017 bp encoding two putative open reading frames (ORFs). ORF301 shows amino acid sequence homologies (28~50%) with RNase T2s of various organisms. It also contains BEN domain in C-terminal region. ORF302 is a hypothetical gene, which is also found in other bracoviruses. Both genes were expressed in larvae of Plutella xylostella parasitized by C. plutellae. ORF301 and ORF302 were transiently expressed in hemocyte, fat body, gut, and epidermis of P. xylostella. To analyze effects of these genes on the parasitism, the segment of CpBV-S3 was injected to non parasitized larvae of P. xylostella, in which the two genes were expressed at least for four days post-injection. The P. xylostella larvae injected with CpBV-S3 exhibited significant immunosuppression, such as reduction in total hemocyte population, suppression of immune associated genes including cecropin, pro-phenoloxidase (PO) and serpin1, and impairment in nodule formation behavior of hemocytes in response to bacterial challenge. Each gene expression in the treated larvae was inhibited by co-injecting respective double strand RNA (dsRNA) specific to each ORF. Injection of dsRNA of ORF301 could rescue the immunosuppression by the viral segmenttreated larvae, but not by ORF302 specific dsRNA. The larval injected with CpBV-S3 exhibited an enhanced susceptibility to baculovirus infection. These results indicate that ORF301 of CpBV-S3, which containing BEN domain, suppresses both cellular and humoral immune responses in P. xylostella.

As an environment-friendly phytosanitary measure, CATTS (controlled atmosphere temperature treatment system) has been developed to kill several quarantine insect pests infesting subtropical agricultural commodities. This study tested any possibility to apply CATTS to apples to effectively eliminate the peach fruit moth, Carposina sasakii, which has been regarded as a quarantine insect from the imported countries. When the larvae of C. sasakii were directly exposed to 46℃ (an installed lethal temperature of CATTS), they showed a median lethal time at 14.66 min. Addition of high carbon dioxide to the temperature treatment enhanced the thermal limit susceptibility of C. sasakii to 46℃. CATTS device was constructed to automatically control CO₂ concentration and temperature with real-time monitoring both in the chamber and in the fruit. The larvae internally infesting apples were tested using the CATTS device and showed 100% lethality after 60 min exposure to a treatment of 46℃ under 15% CO₂ in the chamber. Relatively long exposure may be due to the deviation between the ramping temperature (0.35℃/min) of the chamber and the ramping temperature (0.12-0.23℃/min) inside apple fruit, where the tested larvae were located. This study suggests a possibility that CATTS can be applied as a quarantine measure to kill the larvae of C. sasakii locating inside the apples.

Mating disruption (MD) using synthetic sex pheromone lures has been used to control the Oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), in apple orchards. In Korea, where several small apple orchards are clustered but independently managed, its efficacy has been suspected mainly due to immigration of any mated females from nearby untreated cultivating areas. This study developed an edge treatment technique to decrease any local MD-free zones in a specific MD-treated farm and to trap any immigrating mated females by installing MD lures and food traps around the apple farm with 10 meter intervals. The addition of the edge treatment to the MD significantly prevented leaf and fruit damages induced by G. molesta compared to MD only. Moreover, this study tried to optimize the MD control technique by determining frequency of MD application. It suggests two MD applications with the edge treatment at the end of March and at the early of July to be effective throughout the entire apple growing seasons.

Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L.) belonging to genus Lepidoptera is a notorious pest of cruciferous crops worldwide. We evaluated the bioinsecticidal activity of the liquid cultures (LB and NB) of a bacterial strain, Serratia sp. EML-SE1, isolated from a diseased diamondback moth. The pathogenicity of a bacterial strain to diamondback moth was confirmed by the following procedures: treatment of liquid culture on cabbage leaves, ingestion of inoculated cabbage and mortality response. For the test, twenty 3rd instar larvae of diamondback moth were placed on the Chinese cabbage leaf in a round plastic cage (Ø 10 × 6 cm) and sprayed with the liquid cultures. After 72 hours, insecticidal activity of LB and NB cultures of Serratia sp. against P. xylostella larvae showed 91.7% and 88.3%, respectively. In addition, the bioinsecticidal activity on potted cabbage with 14 leaves in a growth cage (165 × 83 × 124 cm) also was similar to that of plastic cage experiment. Summarized, the Serratia sp. EML-SE1 may be a potent candidate as a bioinsecticidal agent to control diamondbac kmoth.

The potato tuber moth (PTM, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller)) is a serious pest of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) plants in the field in regions with warm temperate to tropical climates, and of tubers stored under ambient temperatures post-harvest. Although PTM can be a minor to serious pest depending on the area and year, this pest is getting more and more serious to potato fields in Korea according to accidental surveys. Son (1979) represented 12.5℃ of average annual temperature as northern limit of distribution where corresponding to Youngdeog, Dalseong, Boseong and Jindo regions. Soon after, Choi and Park (1980) reported that the northern limit of PTM distribution coincided with -8℃ isotherm for average annual minimum temperature of January. In recent years, concerns on PTM occurrence and damage to potato are increasing due to climate change resulted in global warming. We carried out an extensive survey of PTM distribution using sex pheromone traps at 24 sites across the nation in 2009. As a result, we confirmed that the northern limit of PTM distribution climbed to southern Gyeonggi and middle Gangwon regions from Gyeongbuk and Chungbuk regions indicated by Choi and Park (1980). Hereafter, we are trying to investigate why drastic going northward of PTM happened in Korea. Here is one presumption that a sudden rise in average temperature has occurred during 30 years, from 6.34℃ in 1973 to 7.62℃ in 2007, especially around Daegwallyeong area where is a typical highland with 800 m high.

Two entomopathogenic bacteria, Xenorhabdus nematophila and Photorhabdus temperata subsp. temperata, are known to be potent against the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, when the bacteria are injected into the hemocoel. This study investigated any pathogenic effect of their culture broth on P. xylostella by oral administration. Only culture broth of both bacterial species did not give enough pathogenic effects by the oral administration. However, when the culture broth was orally treated together with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), both cell-free culture broth significantly enhanced Bt pathogenicity against the 3rd instar larvae of P. xylostella. The culture broth was then fractionated into hexane, ethyl acetate, and aqueous extracts. Most synergistic effect on Bt pathogenicity was found in ethyl acetate extracts of both bacterial species. Thin layer chromatography of these extracts clearly showed that ethyl acetate extracts of both bacterial culture broths possessed metabolites that were different to those of hexane and aqueous extracts. These results suggest that the both entomopathogenic bacteria produce and secrete different factors to give significant synergistic effect on Bt pathogenicity.

Local and seasonal populations of the oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta , were monitored with sex pheromone trapping and RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) molecular marker to analyze their movement in apple orchards. To detect their movements among farms, pheromone traps were placed at regions between apple farms (‘outside-farms’) as well as within-farms (‘inside-farms’). Four seasonal adult peaks were evident in apple-cultivating fields from April to October in both trappings of inside- or outside-farms. After overwintering generation, populations of inside-farms were significantly reduced with frequent insecticide applications, compared to populations of outside-farms. Within apple farms, G. molesta tended to be unevenly distributed because of significant sublocal preference. Active movements of local and seasonal populations of G. molesta were supported by gene flow analysis using RAPD marker. Monitoring data using sex pheromone and seasonal reduction in initial genetic differentiation detected in the overwintering populations suggest that there must be significant movement of G. molesta among different orchards in apple-cultivating areas.

This study was conducted to identify the seasonal occurrence patterns of peach pyralid moth, Dichocroscis punctiferalis (Guenee), and persimmon fruit moth, Satthmopoda masinissa Meyrick, in persimmon orchards in four different regions, Ulsan and Jinyeong in Gyeongsangbuk-do, and Naju and Yeongam in Jeollanam-do. Three pheromone traps (Delta trap, GreeAgro Tech) for each moth species were installed at each site and checked with 1 week intervals. Peach pyralid moth and persimmon fruit moth occurred in all four study sites. Two moth species exhibited two distinctive peaks, but there were some time differences in the peak among sites. Peach pyralid moth first occurred in late May to early June in Ulsan, Jinyeong and Naju but occurred in late July in Yeongam. Overall, the first peak appeared in mid- to late June but the time of the second peak varied widely among sites. Persimmon fruit moth first occurred in early to mid-June in Ulsan, Jinyeong and Naju but occurred in mid-May in Yeongam. The first peak appeared in mid- to late June in Ulsan, Jinyeong and Naju but it appeared in late May in Yeongam. The time of the second peak was around late August in the study sites except Ulsan where the second peak time was in late September.

This study was conducted to develop the economic threshold for the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella (L.) on Leaf Broccoli (leaf vegetable) in 2007. To investigate the relationship between initial density of diamondback moth larvae and broccoli leaf yield, experimental plots with five treatments (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 larvae per plant) as initial density were established. We inoculated larvae in chesses cloth covering to survey larvae density change. When grown to eat, leaves of broccoli were harvested by periods. 60-70% of larvae were removed whenever we picked the leaves. High levels of larvae were associated with significant reductions in leaf yield. There were 85%, 64%, 58%, and 56% yield reductions from the diamond back moth larvae density in 0, 0.5, 1,0, 1.5, 2.0 per plant, respectively 25days after larvae inoculation. The regression equation used to predict leaf yield based on the number of initial larvae density per a plant was y=1635-393x(R2=0.79***). The economic injury level of diamondback moth on leaf broccoli was 2-3 larvae per 10 plants for a damage level of 5%. The economic thresholds was 1-2 larvae per 10 plants. Thus, the diamond back moth management should be initiated 1-2 larvae occurrence per plant.

The use of electron beam irradiation has been emerged as one of alternative ways of the restriction of methyl bromide usage for the disinfestation of stored-products and quarantine pests. Here we demonstrated effects of electron beam irradiation on development and gene expression of P. interpunctella, which is a serious pest of various stored-products. P. interpunctella at various developmental stages were irradiated at 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1 kGy. Eggs failed to hatch at all treated doses of electron beam. Fifth instar larvae pupated only 6.7% by 0.25 kGy irradiation but failed pupation at above doses. Interestingly, survived larvae by low-dose irradiation did not pupated until 40 days. Pupae eclosed to adults only 12.1% by 0.25 kGy irradiation but failed at above doses. In addition, 5-day-old pupae eclosed 94.4, 91.6, 100 and 49.9% at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 kGy, respectively. However, most of those emerged adults were malformed, especially in wings, and showed very low oviposition rate. We demonstrated whether the electron beam irradiation induces gene expression. Upregulated genes at any doses were hsp70, which is a stress-responsive protein, at fifth instar larval stage and hemolin, which is an immune-responsive protein, at pupal stage. Some genes of pupae, such as β-1,3 glucan recognition protein, hsp70 and acp25 (small hsp) were upregulated only at high doses. However, other genes, such as prophenoloxidase, ultraspiracle , ecdysone receptor and heat shock proteins (hsp90, hsc70) were downregulated by irradiation of electron beam

Mitochondrial genome is inherited in maternal origin without recombination by mating and its specific regions have been used to monitor insect pest populations in agriculture. The oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, is a serious pest on apple industry by its direct damage on fruits. This study reports a full sequence of mitochondrial genome of G. molesta. Sequence contigs were made by primary PCRs on conserved regions and subsequent PCRs to fill the gaps. Annotated genes were highly matched to the sequences of other lepidopteran species. However, a few positions of tRNA genes on the genome were different to other mitochondrial genomes.

Local and seasonal populations of the oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, were monitored with sex pheromone trapping and RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) molecular marker to analyze their movement in apple orchards. To detect their movements among farms, pheromone traps were placed at regions between apple farms ('outside-farms') as well as within-farms ('inside-farms'). Four seasonal adult peaks were evident in apple-cultivating fields from April to October in both trappings of inside- or outside-farms. After overwintering generation, populations of inside-farms were significantly reduced with frequent insecticide applications, compared to populations of outside-farms. Within apple farms, G. molesta tended to be unevenly distributed because of significant sublocal preference. Active movements of local and seasonal populations of G. molesta were supported by gene flow analysis using RAPD marker. Monitoring data using sex pheromone and seasonal reduction in initial genetic differentiation detected in the overwintering populations suggest that there must be significant movement of G. molesta among different orchards in apple-cultivating areas.

An endoparasitoid wasp, Cotesia plutellae, parasitizes larvae of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, with its symbiotic polydnavirus, C. plutellae bracovirus (CpBV). This study analyzed the role of Inhibitor-kB (IkB)-like genes encoded in CpBV in suppressing host antiviral and antimicrobial responses. Identified eight CpBV-IkBs are scattered on different viral genome segments and showed high homologies with other bracoviral IkBs in their amino acid sequences. Compared to an insect ortholog (e.g., Cactus of Drosophila melanogaster), they possessed a shorter ankyrin repeat domain without any regulatory domains. The eight CpBV-IkBs are, however, different in their promoter components and expression patterns in the parasitized host. To test their inhibitory activity on host antiviral response, a midgut response of P. xylostella against baculovirus infection was used as a model reaction. When the larvae were orally fed the virus, they exhibited melanotic responses of midgut epithelium, which increased with baculovirus dose and incubation time. Parasitized larvae exhibited a significant reduction in the midgut melanotic response, compared to nonparasitized larvae. Micro-injection of each of the four CpBV genome segments containing CpBV-IkBs into the hemocoel of nonparasitized larvae showed the gene expressions of the encoded IkBs and suppressed the midgut melanotic response in response to the baculovirus treatment. When nonparasitized larvae were orally administered with a recombinant baculovirus containing CpBV-IkB, they showed a significant reduction in midgut melanotic response and an enhanced susceptibility to the baculovirus infectivity. The transiently expressed CpBV-IkB3 inhibited expression of hemolin, but did not those of lysozyme and cecropin in P. xylostella, while both lysozyme and cecropin were inhibited in the treated Spodoptera exigua. When the recombinant AcNPV was mixed with Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Bt), the bacterial pathogenicity was significantly enhanced in a dose-dependent manner, compared to a Bt mixture with an AcMNPV recombined with an enhanced green fluorescence protein gene.

This paper presents sequential sampling plans for evaluating the pest density based on complete counts from probe in a rice storage warehouse. Both maize weevil and Indian meal moth population showed negative binomial dispersion patterns in brown rice storage. For cost-effective monitoring and action decision making system, sequential sampling plans by using the sequential probability ratio test (SPRT) were developed for the maize weevil and Indian meal moth in warehouses with 0.8 M/T storage bags. The action threshold for the two insect pests was estimated to 5 insects per ㎏, which was projected by a matrix model. The results show that, using SPRT methods, managers can make decisions using only 20 probe with a minimum risk of incorrect assessment.

Adding cinnamon (Cinnamonum cassia Blume) extract into the adhesive used to affix stickers to a chocolate package is an effective method for protecting chocolate products from infestation by the Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella Hübner). Chocolate packages treated with adhesive including 0.02% and 0.025% of cinnamon extract were not infested with the Indian meal moth for up to 30 days at 28.1℃ and 70-75% RH, whereas 100% of the packages without the extract were infested in the no-choice test. Chocolate packages treated with adhesive including 0.02% and 0.025% of cinnamon extract in the quadruple choice test were not infested with the Indian meal moth for up to 60 days at 28.1℃ and 70-75% RH, whereas 100% of the packages without the extract were infested. A panel test showed that the cinnamon extract treatment would not affect consumers’ choices.

An unidentified moth was captured in sex pheromone traps of the oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, especially at spring season in apple orchards and their vicinity. Though the captured males were similar in appearance to G. molesta males, they were easily distinguished by a marked difference in body size. Their occurrence pattern was also similar to that of overwintering G. molesta population from April to May, at which more males were captured in the pheromone traps installed in the vicinity of apple orchards than within apple orchards. After May, they were no longer captured in the pheromone traps. To investigate any larval damage due to this unidentified moth, molecular markers needed to be developed. Four PCR-RFLP markers originated from cytochrome b region of mitochondrial DNA could distinguish this unidentified moth from G. molesta.

A wax-typed pheromone dispenser has been developed and applied to control outbreak of the oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, in apple orchard. To optimize its application technique, this study analyzed effect of different amounts of the pheromone dispenser on mating disruption (‘MD’) of G. molesta. Different pheromone dispenser amounts significantly influenced the MD effect assessed by cumulative male adult catches monitored respectively by sticky delta trap and food trap, and resulted in differential damage on host plants. In a field test during entire growing season, a standard amount (120 g per 0.117 ㏊) of wax-typed pheromone dispenser was proved to be effective to suppress outbreak of G. molesta adults and to prevent host plant damage as much as a current commercial MD product (Isomate<SUP>Ⓡ</SUP>). This study also demonstrated an effectiveness of deployment of food trap barriers around MD-treated area to prevent immigration of mated females from outside untreated areas. These results indicate that the wax-typed pheromone dispenser can be applied to control field G. molesta populations and its co-application with food trap barriers would be optimal to maximize MD efficacy.