This article is a historical study on the distinction between to-infinitives and bare infinitives. Generally, the to-infinitive denotes the futuristic, indirect potential event, while the bare infinitive denotes the direct one. This meaning distinction between the two infinitival constructions has been persistent through the long history of English, as argued in Fischer(1995, 1996a, 1996b, 1997a, 1997b, 2000). The issue is how and from what this meaning difference is derived. The common account is structural, saying that the to-infinitive has the clausal status such as IP or CP with the inflectional element inside, while the bare-infinitive has the small clause structure such as VP. This account assumes that the infinitival marker to is a meaningless grammatical element(INFL). However, it is argued in this article that the infinitival to is a lexical element having its own lexical meanings and that these lexical meanings of the to are the maintenance of its original prepositional characters. In other words, the lexical meanings of the infinitival to, derived from its original prepositional category, has not been wiped out, although the meanings were a little weakened in ME for a while. The conclusion is that the meanings of the to-infinitives such as futurity and indirectness are due to the morpheme to itself, not to the structure caused by its presence.

공간적 위치 및 유량 값에 따라 각 계산점마다 조도계수의 값이 달리 주어질 수 있도록 하는 가변 조도변수 부정류 계산모형을 수립하였다. 유량과 조도계수의 관계식으로는 계단함수 또는 멱함수를 적용할 수 있도록 하였다. 수립된 모형을 충주댐부터 팔당댐까지의 남한강 구간에 적용하여 최적화에 의한 매개변수의 추정을 수행하였다. 가변 매개변수 모형의 보정 결과, 계단함수 도형 및 멱함수 모형 모두 유량이 커질수록 조도계수가 감소하는 경향이 일관되게 나타났다. 이

다양한 내부경계를 포함하는 폐합형 하천수계에 대한 부정류 계산모형을 개발하였다. 계산모형은 폐합형 수계모형으로서, 계산기법으로는 Preissmann의 4점 음해법과 폐합형 double sweep 알고리즘에 근거한 모형을 사용하였다. 또한 댐 및 수중보 등의 수공구조물에서 발생할 수 있는 월류흐름, 오리피스형 흐름 등에 대한 모의가 가능하도록 하고, Auto ROM에 의한 댐에서의 홍수조절 방안을 내부경계 조건으로 포함하여 홍수시 운영조건에 대한 모의가

It is well-known that not may have scope over the universally quantified subject, even though it cannot c-command the subject. When surface structure does not correspond to logical form, we can resort to such scope-shifting operations as QR or reconstruction. However, I propose that those syntactic operations do not work for the relative scope of negation. Instead, I argue that a relational analysis of negation enables us to explain the phenomena without recourse to those syntactic operations. That is, I claim that not takes VP as a first argument and the subject as a second argument, negating the relation between the two arguments.

T. S. Eliot has woven into the fabric of Four Quartets themes and symbols from a variety of Christian and non-Christian mystical sources. One of the powerful mystical elements is derived from the 16th century Spanish mystic, St. John of the Cross, whose spiritual exercises stand for the Negative Way. In the Western theology, there are two distinctive ways in which Christian saints or poets can perceive the Divine Reality. They are the Affirmative Way and the Negative Way. The Affirmative Way is the same idea with the doctrine or poetry of immanence, and the Negative Way with the doctrine or poetry of transcendence. T. S. Eliot's poetry is influenced by the tradition of the Negative Way or the poetry of transcendence. This thesis intends to study what characteristics the Affirmative Way or the Negative Way respectively has, and what is the theory of St. John's dark night of the soul. Also it wishes to trace which elements Eliot took from St. John and which elements he refused to take. Finally, in his masterpiece Four Quartets, this study will observe how St. John's negative theology is crystallized into the inner structure of the poem. Also this thesis wishes to reveal in what sense Eliot's poetry can be named the poetry of transcendence. Hopkins perceives the unity of nature, a poet and God, therefore he depicts the nature like "The world is charged with the grandeur of God." But Eliot is not eager to perceive the immanent presence of God in the power and beauty of nature. Instead, the poet is evoked with partial ecstasy and partial dread and goes through purgation process and afterwards reaches self-oblivion or union with God. In Eliot's idiom, he wishes to "go by a way wherein there is no ecstasy." In "Burnt Norton" III and "East Coker" III Eliot gives powerful expression to St. John's Negative Way. In these parts Eliot tries to apply St. John's theory, which was, originally, individual way of spiritual exercises, to diagnosing the collective spiritual darkness of modern London. Eliot seems to declare such a modern society must pass through the painful self-negation and complete deprivation, as shown in St. John's Negative Way. According to John X. Cooper, such idea of Eliot's is possibly true, because if the individual purification cannot bring us back from the abyss, the mere social world can hold absolutely no hope. We can hear Eliot's prophetic voice saying that after descending to the bottom and confronting the absolute solitude and abyss, the soul can arise from the dark night of purgation towards the world of light. Four Quartets, however, remains first and foremost a poem not a poetic version of mystical theology. Although Eliot alludes to and even paraphrases St. John's dark night of the soul, St. John's negative theology can be only one of the powerful threads in Eliot's poetical fabric.

인삼 부정근의 생장과 ginsenosides 함량에 미치는 elicitor의 영향을 조사한 결과 chitosan처리구의 생장량은 10 mg/L에서 가장 양호하였으며, ginsenosides의 함량은 5 mg/L처리농도에서 14.48 mg/g . DW로 대조구에 비해 약9%의 함량증대를 가져왔다. 세포내에서 이차대사계를 활성화시키는 중간 신호전달 물질(signal transducer)로 알려진 jasmonic acid를 인삼 부정근 배양에 처리한 결과 부정근의 생장량은 10 uM 처리구에서 ginsenosides함량이 가장 양호하였으나, 인삼 부정근의 생장은 다소 억제되었다.

인삼 천풍의 배(embryo)로부터 부정근을 유도하고 배양배지조성, 식물 호르몬과 인삼염의 농도가 인삼부정근의 생장과 ginsenosides의 생성에 미치는 영향을 조사하였다. 배지 종류별 인삼 부정근의 생장량은 B5, WPM, MS 배지 순으로 높았으며, ginsenosides 함량은 B5배지에서 가장 높았으며 panaxa triol계 사포닌 보다 panaxa diol계 사포닌이 증가하였다. 식물 생장조절제 처리구에서의 인삼부정근의 생장량은 kinetin 0.1 mg/L에서 높게 나타났으며 , ginsenosides 함량은 kinetin 0.01 mg/L에서 오히려 높게 나타났다. 특히 kinetin 0.01 mg/L 첨가에서 ginsenoside Rb1의 함량이 크게 증가하였다. KH2PO4를 추가 첨가 할때에는 부정근의 생장에 2.5 mM에서 대조구에 비해 양호하였으나, ginsenosides의 함량은 1.25 mM에서 높았으며 , 특히 ginsenosides Re의 급격한 증가로 인하여 panaxatriol계 사포닌의 함량이 증가되었다.

The rise of multiple negation which bears negative concord can be explained in terms of the word order change from (S)XV having preverbal predicate negation to (S)VX having postverbal predicate negation in the history of English language. In a multiple negative sentence with V2 where a second negative adverb appears in the second stage of the Jespersen`s negative cycle, the first negator performs the grammatical function of focalization in the Spec of CP and the second one confirms the negative meaning in 1P. The linguistic circumstances in which ne.....na￣/no￣>na￣ht/no￣ht was preferred to ne seem to be closely related to the grammatical function of focalization which was realized in the syntactic structure of V2. The head C in V2 word order has a focus feature as the uninterpretable EPP-feature of OCC, and this feature induces the operation Agree that is accompanied by the internal Merge of a focus element. It is widely recognized that the negator ne in CP has come to be weak and cliticized, but it is still treated as an independent constituent in the multiple negative sentences with V2.

It is claimed in the literature (e.g., Suh 1990, Sohn 1995, etc.) that an NPI freezes the scope relation between a quantifier (QP) and negation: a QP to the left of an NPI scopes over negation and a QP to the right of an NPI scopes under negation. (A QP scopes over or under negation when no NPI is around.) The scope freezing effect induced by NPIs has been accounted for by (often tacitly made) assumptions that (i) NPIs are in the scope of negation; (ii) the negation scope is NegP; and (iii) NPIs are licensed at the SPEC of NegP. This paper first provides sets of data showing that the so-called scope freezing effect is not a well established generalization. Once the scope freezing effect turns out to be an illusion, theories based on the generalization should be reconsidered. Thus, this paper discusses some related issues and leads to the following conclusions: (i) NegP does not necessarily indicate the negation scope: (ii) NPIs may be located outside of negation scope at least in some environments, where they have a Free Choice reading; and (iii) contra Sells (2001), the NPI distribution in Korean cannot be captured in terms of the `command` relation but in terms of the `government` relation based on Chung`s (1995) typology of negation licensing.

Pil-Hwan Lee. 2003. A Historical Study on English Negative Expressions - with Special Reference to the Methodology in English Historical Syntax. Studies in Modern Grammar 31, 107-136. This is a study on the changes in sentential negation in English, from Old English to the present day, in terms of Jespersen`s(1917) Negative Cycle. The Negative Cycle is an assumption that negative adverbs are depleted lexical meaning they undergo phonological and morphosyntactic reduction to a bound morpheme prefixed to the finite verb. The history of English clearly supports this assumption. The issue is how to explain these aspects of changes. van Kemenade(1997a, 1997c, 1999, 2000) tries to account for the history of English sentential negation as a pure case of morphosyntactic change. It means that the change was triggered by structural factors. However, it is argued in this paper that the triggering factor for the change is the weakening of meaning. In other words, negative adverbs are morphologically and syntactically weakened to negative head status due to the semantic bleaching of negation and to the overlapping function in expressing sentential negation in NegP. The two positions in NegP inherently presuppose the functional redundancy in expressing sentential negation, so the specifier of NegP is generally weakened to Neg˚.

Pil - Hw an Lee . 2002 . On the Dev elopment of Eng lish Infinitiv al Cons tructions . S t ud ie s in M od e rn Gram ma r 27, 77- 104 . This is an explanation for the development of the three infinitival constructions which were introduced into English roughly at the same time during the Middle English period, i.e., the so- called Accusitiv cum Infinitivo (or exceptional case-marking ) construction, the f or NP to V construction, and the passive infinitivals . There have been various accounts for the introduction of these constructions . The traditional accounts are synt actic borrowing from Latin and analogical extension. However, Fischer (1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992a, 1992b, 1994) criticizes such accounts, saying that the introduction was due to grammar - internal factors, expecially to the word order change English underwent in this period. It is argued in this article that the loss of inflectional endings is a more important internal change than the word order change. The argument is that the reanalysis, by which new infinitival constructions appeared, was due to the loss of inflectional ending (especially, dative ending ) of the sandwiched NP between the main verb and the infinitive. Furthermore, there is a general agreement that the word order change in English was it self due to the loss of inflectional endings. In this respect , the loss of the inflectional endings is a more basic and important factor for the changes of English Infinitival constructions .

The 16th century was a epoch-making time in the intellectual history of Korea because of the appearance of two greatest scholars, Nammyeong(南冥) Jo Sik(曺植) and T'oegye(退溪) Yi Hwang(李滉) who were leaders for the direction from the time forward in the intellectrual history of Korea. The difference of academic thinkings and political ideas between them clearly exposed at the beginning was one of the origins of the prosperity from 16th to 17th century in our intellectual history as their disciples were founding principal schools. On the other hand, it also brought about such serious matters as the start of confrontations and discordances between two leading schools. As Nammyeonghakpa(南冥學派) went on disorganization as a school after 17th century as well as downfall in the political world, it had been intensively under political oppression other than T'oegyehakpa(退溪學派) even in the political position similar to it within the political world. But, the negative understandings and evaluations of Nammyeonghak(南冥學) or Nammyeonghakpa in the next generation had virtually started from the discordance and conflict with T'oegye in academic thoughts and political ideas. Yi Hwang who considered as his own duty to restore the soˇngnihak(性理學) because of his awareness of the time being as a corruption conflicted undoubtedly with Nammyeong and his school, by bringing up the dispute of deviation from soˇngnihak's orthodoxy in the academic thinkings of Jo Sik made a difference with him. It also meaned the open of harsh criticism or denial against Nammyeonghak and its school. Such criticisms or negative opinions for Nammyeonghak grew in place after the severe criticisms for Chong Yinhong(鄭仁弘) who was a follower of Jo Sik. The typical critic was the Noronpa(老論派) of soyin(西人) from Yulgok(栗谷) Yi I(李珥) to Taekdang(澤堂) Yi Sik(李植). Especially Yi Sik among them tried to build the foundation of political justification by giving a criticism for Nammyeonghakpa including Chong Yinhong. Along with it, he also tried to give a harsh criticism in a full scale against Nammyeonghak through his large number of writings. After the members of Noronpa of Soyin were influenced by or followed his critical opinions, it ended up to the peak of criticism in the line of Nong'am(農巖) Kim Changhyup(金昌協) and his disciples. Kim Changhyup took a strongly critical and negative position other than Song Siyeol(宋時烈), his master, had a flexible position against Nammyeong. In the end, his negative opinions spreaded out and developed into an intensive criticism in the line of Chong'am (正庵) Yi Hyeon'ik(李顯益) who was his loyal disciple. However, in spite of the harsh journey of Nammyeonghak which had been denied even the worth for its being in history, it came to be a comeback because of its revaluation movement by the scholars of Kyeong sang Namdo(慶尙南道) province in 19th century. As it was in the 19th century of the crisis era, a group of scholars in the province started the revaluation movement of Nammyeonghak and its actual values. The movement was growing much more and continued steady to 20th century. Those flows of Nammyeonghak in the intellectual history of Korea became one of the principal reasons of understanding newly of the merit of Nammyeonghak and its reappearance. In brief, still within such continuous circumstances in crisis up to now, we started to revaluate the worth for Nammyeonghak's being as the valid thought even in our times.