This research focuses on teaching Arabic to Jewish students in Jerusalem, a city of significant cultural and religious importance for both Arabs and Jews, especially under the backdrop of the prolonged conflict between these communities. The study asserts that the political complexity inherent in this context gives rise to unique challenges in teaching Arabic in Jewish schools in Jerusalem, which is influenced by conflict and racism. These factors contribute to the formation of a psychological barrier within the Arabic educational process. The objective of the study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the status of Arabic teaching to Jews in Jerusalem, emphasizing the unique aspects of this case and addressing the challenges encountered in the process. The outcomes of this research showed that the demographic composition of Jerusalem, with concentrations of both Arabs and extremist Jews, contributes to the distinctive nature of this case compared to other Israeli-occupied cities. This demographic factor influences the goals of teaching Arabic to Jews in Jerusalem and, concurrently, intensifies the challenges faced in this educational process, setting it apart from similar endeavors in different locations.

The spread of COVID-19 changes consumer preferences and behaviors greatly across the world. Extant literature has demonstrated that when there is a threat to disease, people stay away from those who do not seem healthy as they can be potentially infectious. Based on the previous literature, this research shows that individuals exposed to disease threat avoid products of which designs are high in visual complexity. When disease threat was present, individuals had lower purchase intention for products with complex designs. The perceived uncleanliness mediated the effect of visual complexity and disease threat on purchase intention. The findings provide a novel insight into the effect of disease salience on consumer perception of product design.

This study explored how task complexity, writing behaviors (i.e., pausing and revision behaviors), and writing performance (i.e., task completion, coherence and cohesion, language use, and expression and tone) influence and relate to each other. Thirty advanced-level Korean EFL undergraduates completed writing tasks differing in complexity. A combination of keystroke logging and stimulated recall interview was employed. It was found that the simple task group showed a greater number of pauses and revisions related to lower-order writing processes, whereas the complex task group showed longer pauses related to higher-order writing processes. While task complexity had no influence on writing performance, writing behaviors revealed significant relationships with text quality. In the simple task group, pause length and revision were negatively related to writing scores, whereas pause frequency revealed mixed results. In the complex task group, consistent negative relations were found between pausing behaviors and text quality, and fewer revisions were related to better scores in expression and tone.

The Cognition Hypothesis postulates that more cognitively complex tasks can trigger more accurate and complex language production, thereby advancing second language (L2) development. However, few studies have directly examined the relationship between task manipulations and L2 development. To address this gap, this article reviews, via an analytic approach, nine empirical studies that investigated the impact of task complexity on L2 development in the domain of morphosyntax. The studies are categorized into two groups based on if they include learner-learner interaction or a focus on form (FonF) treatment provided by an expert interlocutor. The results indicate that the findings of the studies, albeit partially mixed, tend to support the predictions of the Cognition Hypothesis. More importantly, a further analysis reveals seven key methodological issues that need to be considered in future research: target linguistic domains, different types of FonF, the complexity of the target structure, task types, outcome measures, the use of introspective methods, and the need of more empirical studies and replicable study designs.

We explored whether task complexity, operationalized by the two types of writing prompts, affects EFL high school students’ narrative writing in terms of syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, fluency, cohesion, and text quality. 32 intermediate EFL students who were randomly assigned to two prompt groups completed a written narrative task based on a series of sixteen pictures. Task complexity was operationalized as a bare versus frame prompt. The results indicate that the task complexity had an impact on lexical sophistication measures. The students in the framed prompt group were able to include more sophisticated vocabulary in their narratives than those in the bare prompt group. The findings are discussed in terms of the Limited Attentional Capacity Model in that the students in the bare prompt group might have prioritized meaning rather than form in order to ease attentional overload. The findings of our study could assist teachers in selecting writing prompts that have the potential to elicit the targeted features of writing performance.

The present study examines the effects of manipulating cognitive task complexity on high school English learners’ narrative and persuasive writing. Participants were 156 high school students. They were divided into four groups. Each group was given one of four different types of writing that were classified based on their genres (narrative vs. persuasive writing) and dimensions of task complexity (resource-directing vs. resource-dispersing). All participants completed both simple and complex writing tasks for their assigned type of writing. Participants’ written products were measured in terms of complexity, accuracy, and fluency. The results revealed that increased task complexity, along with the resource-directing dimension, somewhat positively affected the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of both narrative and persuasive writing. However, increased task complexity, along with the resource-dispersing dimension, showed differential effects of cognitive complexity on participants’ written products between the genres. It resulted in decreased scores in fluency and accuracy, and had no significant impact on the complexity of narrative writing. As for persuasive writing, on the other hand, it lowered the fluency, increased the complexity, and had no impact on the accuracy. The pedagogical suggestions drawn from the results are provided along with the limitations of the study.

When consumers are faced with various discounts, they are likely to find some easier to comprehend than others and this degree of difficulty will impact purchase decisions. This study explains complexity as a dimension of psychological distance using different types of discounts. Current research examines that easy-to-process discounts appear near and difficult-to-process discounts appear far. Applying construal level theory, this research investigates that the dollar discount leads to higher likeability of the attribute-appeal message and the percent discount lead to higher likeability of the benefit-appeal message. The dollar discount is low-level construal, as is an attribute message (i.e., how approach) whereas the percentage discount is high-level construal like a benefit message (i.e., why approach).

When consumers are faced with various discounts, they are likely to find some easier to comprehend than others and this degree of difficulty will impact purchase decisions. This study explains complexity as a dimension of psychological distance using different types of discounts. Current research examines that easy-to-process discounts appear near and difficult-to-process discounts appear far. Applying construal level theory, this research investigates that the dollar discount leads to higher likeability of the attribute-appeal message and the percent discount lead to higher likeability of the benefit-appeal message. The dollar discount is low-level construal, as is an attribute message (i.e., how approach) whereas the percentage discount is high-level construal like a benefit message (i.e., why approach).

Although several researchers have investigated atypical naming effects with respect to food and color names, no research has examined atypical names in the context of apparel products. In this research, we investigated the way in which atypical clothing names influence consumers’ mental imagery, followed by consumers’ evaluations, compared to typical clothing names. We also investigated the moderating effect of the clothing design’s visual complexity. An experimental design was used with 2 name (atypical vs. typical name) × 2 levels of visual complexity (complex vs. simple design) between-subjects design. A total of 292 responses were collected. The results showed that the atypical name was more effective than were the typical one in influencing consumer’s attitudes and purchase intentions. Also, we found significant interaction effects of visual complexity and names on consumers’ evaluations, which are mediated by mental imagery. For clothes with a simple design, the atypical clothing name increased mental imagery, followed by product attitudes and purchase intentions, more than the typical name did. In contrast, when participants were presented with a garment with a complex design, typical and atypical names did not have different effects on consumers’ evaluations of the garment through their mental imagery. The findings of this study help marketers understand better the way in which consumers process certain names associated with a garment’s design cognitively, and therefore, improve their ability to name garments strategically depending on their design details.

Marketing in the sharing economy The shift on the enhanced complexity of customers‟ needs has created a new business model termed as the sharing economy emerging through the traditional B2B2C sector, and substituted with micro-entrepreneurs who act as service providers (Kumar, Lahiri, and Dogan, n.d.). The importance of the sharing economy is based on the fact that in a short period of time it has managed to disrupt well-established fields (i.e.: taxi and accommodation industry), through the provision of low-cost convenience without the ownership responsibility (Eckhardt & Bardhi, 2015). In general, the sharing economy service providers are not responsible for marketing and promotional aspects since this is an aspect taken care of the service enablers (i.e.: Airbnb). In the sharing economy, marketing needs to focus on the development of early adopters, meaning younger generations (Laciana & Rovere, 2011), since they are the largest generational cohort, and are expected to remain the largest one for the forthcoming decades (Fry, 2016), whilst they have a considerably lower spending capacity than older people (Henderson, 2016). Therefore, younger generations select cost-efficient options and engage in utility-based brand switching (Kumar et al., n.d.). As a result, sharing economy marketing strategies mainly focus on apps or websites where their existing customers may visit (McAlone, 2016). Moreover, multigenerational marketing is considered as a rational segmentation strategy for service enablers (Eckhardt & Bardhi, 2015), since the older a generation is the lower the general adoption rates in sharing economy marketing (Hall & Krueger, 2015). Still, the complex decision-making of consumers in sharing economy‟s marketing is affected by several factors such as price and quality issues and the associated risks (Pappas, 2017). Despite the importance of sharing economy in modern business, the literature is silent on the complexity of aspects affecting the related marketing activities. The paper examines the complexity of marketing activities formulation examining peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation holidaymakers in Athens, Greece. It specifically evaluates the impact of risks, price and quality issues, and social aspects, on P2P accommodation marketing activities, also including the socio-demographics of age and income. The research contribution is in both, theoretical and methodological domains. In terms of literature the study provides an understanding of the complexity formulation of marketing activities, with special reference to the sharing economy. Methodologically-wise, the research implements fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA), which is considered new to the study of tourism and hospitality (Pappas & Papatheodorou, 2017). It further compares fsQCA suitability with regression, which is the dominant correlational mode of analysis. Study tenets In service industry research the term „tenet‟ is used to describe testable precepts able to identify complex conditions (Papatheodorou & Pappas, 2017). This study has formulated six tenets: (T1) The same attribute has the ability to determine a different decision for marketing activities depending on its configuration with other attributes (T2) A complex configuration with at least two simple conditions can leads to an outcome condition that can have a consistently high score (Recipe principle) (T3) Complex configurations can influence the marketing activities for P2P holidaymakers (T4) When the combinations differ on the simple conditions of configurations, they can influence in a positive or negative manner the marketing activities for P2P holidaymakers (T5) Sufficient marketing activities do not always result in a high outcome score (Equifinality principle), and (T6) When the Y scores are high, a given recipe for the marketing activities is not relevant for all cases. Complexity in tourism Complexity theory focuses on complex systems with nonlinear dynamics, characterised by self-organisation, emergence, and evolution (Arévalo & Espinosa, 2015). The theory is used to evaluate the nonparametric, and dynamic processes of complex phenomena in several different disciplines (Olya & Al-ansi, 2018). Tourism complexity is based on several conflicting elements, such as the translocal relationships and multilocality, the heterogeneity of actors, the places and governance globalisation, and the extreme diversity of operations (Darbellay & Stock, 2012). Moreover, tourism deals with complex policies involving multiple actors, and a perpetually changing multi-level coordination in a local, national and international level (Lai, Hsu, and Wearing 2016). The degree of behavioural complexity renders Newtonian (linear) thinking inadequate and highlights the necessity for nonparametric (nonlinear) research (Laws & Prideaux, 2005). Method The study was held in Athens, Greece in adult P2P accommodation holidaymakers. Following the study of Pappas (2017), structured questionnaires were distributed to the P2P rentals, asking from the holidaymakers to fill them in during their stay. As Akis, Peristianis and Warner (1996) suggest, the study‟s sample size should have a minimum of 95 percent level of confidence and a maximum of 5 percent statistical error, whilst the most conservative response of 50/50 (meaning half of the respondents would express positive views and the other half negative ones) was adopted. For N>20, t-table defines cumulative probability (Z) in 1.96 level. Following Akis et al. (1996), the sample size calculation is: Rounded to 400 In total, 712 useful responses were collected, generating a statistical error of 3.67 per cent. The questionnaire consists of 24 Likert scale statements adopted from previous research, including two socio-demographic questions (age; income). The study employed fsQCA for the evaluation of complex configurations. fsQCA is considered a mixed method since it employs quantitative testing and qualitative inductive reasoning, and it is able to examine the potential complex relationships that have a bearing upon the outcome of interest, and identifies combinations of binary sets generated from its predictors. Since the research also estimated negated sets (presence or absence of a simple condition), the symbol “~” was used for the indication of an attributional absence. Research calibration was made by using 42 randomly selected individual cases. For the evaluation of the marketing activities „f_ma‟ affecting holidaymakers, the calibrated fuzzy-sets used were „f_a‟ for age, „f_i‟ for income, „f_r‟ for risks, „f_sa‟ for social aspects, „f_pi‟ for price issues, and „f_qi‟ for quality issues. Results Three sufficient configurations emerged from the research. More specifically, the first solution (f_a*f_i*~f_r*~f_sa*f_pi*f_qi) concerns the price-quality nexus, the second configuration (f_a*~f_i*f_r*~f_sa*f_pi*~f_qi) deals with price sensitivity, and the third one (f_a*~f_i*f_r*f_sa*~f_pi*f_qi) focuses on social interaction. The generated solutions for marketing activities are presented in the table below. The results indicate that all four simple conditions appear in at least one solution (T1), whilst at least two simple conditions are included in each sufficient configuration (T2). Moreover, the findings suggest that the solutions focus on: (i) price-quality nexus (ii) price sensitivity, and (iii) social interaction (T3). In addition, none of the simple conditions appears in all configurations (T4), and three different solutions seem to lead to the same outcome (T5). Finally, the coverage varies from .429 to .453, meaning that none of the solutions applies in all cases (T6). As a result, the findings confirm the six tenets of the study. fsQCA versus regression The study used a structural equation model for the examination of linear relationships, and implemented Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), since the sum of the examined items is based on previous analytic research. Due to the large sample (N=712) χ2/df instead of χ2 was selected, since it is considered as a better estimate of goodness (Chen & Chai, 2007). Following Kline (2010), the research estimated the four most important fit indices: χ2=634.921, df=352, χ2/df=1.803 (acceptable value 0≤χ2/df≤2 [Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger & Müller, 2003]), CFI=.902 (acceptable value is when CFI is close to 1.0 [Weston and Gore 2006]), SRMR=.782 (acceptable value is when SRMR<.8 [Hu & Bentler, 1999]), and RMSEA=.475 (acceptable value is when RMSEA<.5 [Browne & Cudeck, 1993]). In factor analysis, all values less than .4 were suppressed (minimum acceptable value .4 [Norman & Streiner, 2008]) in an effort to evaluate higher coefficients. In all constructs, the Average Variance Explained (AVE) was higher than .5 (minimum acceptable .5 [Kim, 2014]), and the convergent validity (CR) higher than .7 (minimum acceptable value: .7 [Huang, Wang, Wu, & Wang, 2013]). The Figure below explains the study‟s endogenous variables. The comparison of fsQCA with regression highlights that the latter cannot encapsulate the full range of alternative combinations, in restricts the presence/absence of a construct or socio-demographic in one outcome, whilst the row coverage in all sufficient configurations (also showcasing high consistency) is higher than the overall R2 (.393). As a result, fsQCA seems to be more efficient than regression concerning the examination of marketing activities on P2P holidaymakers, since it better presents the influence of the constructs under examination. Managerial implications The study offers a number of managerial implications. For starters, through the use of fsQCA, traditional accommodation providers and destinations can better understand complexity aspects of consumer trends, being able to sufficiently reposition their marketing activities. Moreover, fsQCA can assist on the clarification of the factors affecting marketing complexity in tourism and hospitality, and better promote and advertise the products and services in reference. The understanding of complex marketing patterns, can further lead to the formulation of competitive advantages and strengthen the competitiveness of the enterprises engaged in a destination, as well as the destination itself. In addition, destinations can better comprehend the complex evolution of sharing economy and build upon its strengths, aving the opportunity to formulate a cooperative market towards traditional establishments and P2P rentals. Limitations Despite the theoretical and methodological contribution of the study, several limitations need to be highlighted. The main limitation derives from the study‟s main strength, which is the limited application of fsQCA in tourism and hospitality. Much further use of fsQCA in the field could reveal its full potential. Another limitation deals with the examination of other groups, such as the holidaymakers selecting traditional establishments for their stay, P2P stakeholders, and destination authorities. Since different groups of respondents may produce different outcomes, any generalisation of the findings should be made with caution. Finally, if the research is repeated in some other destination or in later time, the focus of the generated complex configurations may alter. Therefore, the results should be carefully interpreted.

최근 자동차와 IT기술의 융합으로 차량 내 인포테인먼트 시스템이 운전자에게 편의 및 오락 기능을 제공하며 역할이 중요해지고 있다. 하지만 운전과 인포테인먼트 시스템을 조작하는 것은 동시에 시각 리소스를 요구하는 과제로 과제를 전환하며 수행해야 한다. 따라서 본 연구는 운전 중 인포테인먼트 시스템 조작 상황에서 조작 과제의 난이도와 motor cue가 과제 전환과 운전 주행능력에 미치는 영향과 함께, motor cue의 효과가 조작 과제의 난이도 수준에 따라 차이가 있는지 보고자 하였다. motor cue와 조작 과제 난이도의 효과를 살펴보기 위해 반복되는 숫자가 청크 단위와 일치하는지에 따라 두 종류의 번호를 사용하였으며, 터치 키의 크기로 난이도 수준을 조절했다. 실험에서 참가자들은 모의 주행을 하며 스크린에 번호를 입력하도록 지시받았고, 과제 수행 중 번호 입력시간, 차선 유지능력, 숫자 키 입력 시간 간격과 핸들 움직임을 측정했다. 그 결과, 난이도 수준에 따라 운전 주행 능력과[F(1, 26) = 8.521, p < .001], 번호 입력 시간의 차이가 유의미했고[F(1, 26) = 35.372, p < .0001], 번호 종류에 따른 차이는 나타나지 않았다. 하지만 Incongruent 번호 입력 시, 청크로 구분된 두 숫자를 입력하는 시간의 간격과 핸들 움직임이 크게 증가하였다. 이는 반복된 숫자가 청크로 구분되어도 청크를 무시하고 한 번에 입력하였음을 나타낸다. 종합하면, 다중 과제 상황에서 청크 단위는 motor cue에 의해 상쇄되며 과제 전환 시점을 결정하는 데에 motor cue의 효과가 있음을 시사한다.

This study investigated whether task complexity may affect L2 speaking performance as predicted by the Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson, 2011), and whether the effect of task complexity may interact with individual differences in working memory capacity. A total of twenty Korean advanced-level EFL learners performed two separate picture description tasks, which were different in task complexity along [+/- here and now] dimension. Their working memory was measured by an L1 version of a reading span task. The results showed that there was no significant difference between Here-and-Now task (i.e., a simple task) and There-and-Then task (i.e., a complex task) in terms of complexity, accuracy, and fluency of English speaking performance, rejecting the prediction of the Cognition Hypothesis. Yet, it found that working memory correlated with accuracy in L2 performance on the complex task, but not on the simple task. This indicates that the effect of individual learners’ working memory capacity is observable only when a task demands a high control of attentional resources. Conversely, when a task is simple, individual differences in working memory capacity do not result in significant differences in L2 speaking performance.

This study reports the effects of text chat on EFL students’ writing fluency, accuracy, and complexity, investigating whether its effects differ according to the interlocutor. The experimental design employed three text chat groups: one between two nonnative speakers (NNS-NNS); another between a nonnative speaker and a native speaker (NNS-NS); and the other between a nonnative speaker and a nativelike chatbot (NNS-NC). 78 college students of English as a foreign language between 19 to 22 years old were sampled and assigned into the three groups, each consisting of 30, 20, and 28, respectively. Over a 16-week period, they engaged in ten 10-minute-long chat sessions. All groups were tested before and after the treatment. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare preand post-test scores as far as fluency, accuracy, and complexity concerned. To find out the differences between mean scores of the groups, a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was run. Results indicated that all three groups showed significant improvement in accuracy while only NNS-NS and NNS-NC groups did in fluency. No effects for complexity were evident. In terms of group differences, no statistical significance was detected. Participants’ perceptions of English learning and text chat positively changed overall. This study has pedagogical implications for EFL teachers, students, and researchers.

The influence of task complexity on second language (L2) writing performance has been researched near-exclusively in relation to the linguistic complexity of the learners’ written products, while only limited attention has been paid to the online writing processes. In order to fill this gap, the present study focused on the effects of task demands on writing processes as reflected in keystrokes. Forty-four L1 Korean speakers were randomly assigned to either simple or complex condition, and asked to write an argumentative essay. For the simple condition, content support was provided, whereas no such additional information was provided for the complex condition. During the writing task, participants’ entire keystroke loggings were recorded, and analyzed in terms of fluency, pausing, and revision behaviors. The lexical and syntactic complexity of the written products was also analyzed and compared between the two task conditions. The results indicated that greater task demands significantly increased the number of pauses and revisions, having negative influence on fluency. Also, lexical rarity and phrasal complexity decreased under the complex condition. The results are discussed with respect to fuller understanding of the task-based approach to L2 writing.