조지 엘리엇은 종교적 기반 없는 세속적 도덕관을 작품 속에서 구현한 작가 로 인식되기도 한다. 이에 반대해 본 논문은 그녀의 마지막 작품인 대니얼 디 론더에 나타난 유대 신비주의(카발라)의 양상을 분석하면서 엘리엇을 낭만주 의의 영향을 받은 종교적 작가로서 탐구한다. 유대 신비주의 사상은 인간의 자연적 삶 자체가 초자연적 목표를 향하고 있음을 시사해주고 있다. 이 논문은 대 니얼, 궨돌린, 그랜코트, 마이러, 모디카이라는 인물들에게 초점을 맞추어 이 작 품에서 유대 신비주의가 어떤 방식으로 구현되고 있는지 살펴본다. 우선 대니얼은 유대 신비주의에서 원형적 인간인 아담 카드몬을 상징함으로써 세계 구원을 위한 메시아적 사명을 가진 인물이다. 이에 반해 그랜코트는 악의 상징이자 화 신이다. 모디카이, 마이러, 대니얼의 연합은 이스라엘의 연합을 상징하고, 대니 얼을 통한 궨돌린의 변화는 이스라엘이 세계의 도덕적 견인차가 됨을 말해준다. 결국, 엘리엇은 이 작품에서 이기적인 자기 추구에 빠져 있는 당대의 현실 앞에서, 공동체와 전통을 매개로 한 도덕의 갱신이라는 목표를 유대 신비주의 비전 을 통해서 보여주고 있다.

예이츠의 시는 절대 결핍, 무, 신의 영광, 신학적인 난해한 언어 등을 내포하지 않는다. 도리어, 그의 시는 지적 탐구와 학식으로 가득하다. 그의 시는 신비 주의보다는 마술적, 영향적이라기 보다 지적, 주술적이라기보다 신학적 기질을 보인다. 따라서, 그의 시는 서양의 영지주의와 연금술적 전통으로 분류될 수 있다. 그는 세상 의 모든 신비주의적 영지주적 지식(즉 신비적 추상화)을 자신의 시 저술에 변형하고 통합한다. 그래서, 그는 낮은 신비주의, 즉, 신비주의라기 보다 영지주의자로 보아야 한다.

본 논문은 휘트먼의 『풀잎』에 나타난 신비주의에 대한 분석을 다루고 있다. 신비주의는 황홀경, 열락과 같은 초월체험과 초월의식으로, 자아소멸이나 자아가 확대되는 현상이다. 휘트먼의 신비주의 영성의 단계는 신/우주와 일체가 제시된다. 본 논문에서 휘트먼의 신비주의를 소리와 관련하여 5단계로 나누어서 분석하였다. 첫째 신비상태의 진입으로 내안의 영혼/신을 인식하기, 둘째 영혼을 통해 내면에 거하는 신의 사랑과 세상에 대한 새로운 인식하기, 셋째 외부의 우주적이고 신적인 존재와의 접촉과 자아정화 하기, 넷째 신과 합일되어 시공간의 경계를 넘는 영혼 비행과 각성하기, 다섯째 신비상태에서 깨어나기로 세분된다. 「나의 노래」가 신비주의 교본처럼 정확하게 신비주의 체험 과정들을 보여주는 시로 여겨짐을 고려해볼 때에, 윌리엄 제임스, 프리드리히 슐라이어마허, 리차드 벅, 폴 틸리히의 등의 사상을 바탕으로 『풀잎』을 분석해보는 것은 유의미한 작업으로 사료된다.

예이츠의 신비종교적 체험은 그가 평생을 두고 관심을 가졌던 영역이며 이를 통해 그의 독특한 세계령과 아니마 문디의 철학을 성립하는 기반이 되었다. 그중에서 블라밧스키의 체험을 통해 접하게 되었으며 하트만의 소개로 개념을 이해하였고 힌두교적인 관점에서 정리한 아카사는 예이츠의 철학과 작품세계에 있어 중요한 구성 요소가 된다. 예이츠에게 있어 아카사는 신비의 세계를 현세와 연결시켜주는 매개체이며, 동시에 눈에 보이지 않는 것을 눈에 보이게 만들어주는 형이상학적인 과정을 의미하기도 하는 등 예이츠의 신비주의 경험에 있어 핵심적인 역할을 하고 있다.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between W.B. Yeats's obsession with mysticism and his nationalism in his early years (1885-1895). My basic argument is that he knocked at the door of mysticism to find a metaphysical symbol with which he could unify politically, religiously, and culturally divided Ireland. In fact, Yeat's turn to mysticism in his early years attracts many scholars's attentions. But a reading of many studies on this topic leads us to believe that Yeats studied mysticism for other purposes. Elizabeth Cullingford and Richard Ellmann argue that Yeats's preoccupation with mysticism was his antipathy to materialism which was prevalent due to the Industrial Revolution. Seamus Dean explains Yeats's interest in mystical and occult traditions as his efforts to establish an Irish cultural identity. Denis Donoghue maintains that Yeats wanted to separate Irishness from Englishness by dedicating himself to the study of mysticism. In addition to these purposes, I believe, one of Yeats's political agenda was to unify various cultural, religious, and political forces of Ireland before the turn of the century. Yeats firmly believed that the identity of the Irish should be based upon intellectual life and spiritual principles which could solve and transcend the cultual, religious, and political discords of Ireland. The spiritual creeds Yeats was looking for should be founded on the common Irish spirit which could appeal to the Irish whether they were Anglo or Gaelic, Protestants or Catholics, or Unionists or Separatists. In other words, spiritual principles should not be confined to one church. In this sense, Yeats’s choice of Indian thought and occultism is suitable because they have universal appeal. Yeats believed that Indian thought would provide Ireland with the common spiritual tradition which predated both Catholicism and Protestantism. Furthermore, the religious concepts of pantheism and mysticism were the very ideas Yeats needed to bring the conflicting religious and political parties into perfect harmony and balance. Namely, Yeats tried to find a metaphysical model for the unity of Catholics and Protestants through the mystical union.

예이츠는 일생에 걸쳐 그의 문학과 그의 신비주의적 관심을 함께 연결시키려고 노력해왔으며 이는 사후의 세계와 우주의 섭리, 천국과 지옥의 실체 등 인간이 인식하지 못하는 것들에 대한 지적 호기심이며 창조적 탐구의 과정이었다. 이런 신비한 것에 대한 관심의 직접적인 접촉은 물론 블레이크적인 접근이었지만 그 뿌리를 거슬러 올라가면 크게 몇 가지로 분류되는데 이는 철학적 접근, 밀교적 접근, 아일랜드의 신화전설, 낭만주의적 접근, 신학적 접근, 그리고 이 논문에서 언급된 고대 기독교적 접근 등이 그것이다. 기독교적 접근이라고 분류되는 것은 성경에 기초한 교조적인 해석이 아니라 어느 정도 신비주의적으로 기독교의 전통에 따라 보이지 않는 것들, 즉 사후의 영적 경험과 천국과 지옥의 존재의 증명 시도를 의미한다. 예이츠의 기독교 신비주의에 영향을 끼친 두 신학자는 스웨덴보리와 보엠이 있다. 예이츠는 스웨덴보리로부터 주로 사후의 세계에 대해 영향을 받고 있다. 비록 스웨덴보리가 기독교의 교리에서 벗어나지 못했다는 약점에도 불구하고 사후세계의 존재인식과 인간과 신, 혹은 우주가 통신한다는 개념들은 예이츠의 인간영혼의 불멸성과 거대기억의 이론에 직접적인 근거가 된다. 그의 중심사상은 자연계와 영계의 통신이며 이는 우주와 개인, 신과 인간, 사후의 세계와 현세, 귀신과 사람간의 연결이며 합일이다. 영적인 세계는 천당이나 지옥이 아니라 그 중간의 세계이며 죽은 영혼들이 윤회로 다시 태어나거나, 혹은 최종의 목적지에 도달하기 전 잠시 머무는 임시영역이다. 예이츠는 이 영역에서 아니마 문디가 정화되고 거대기억이 형성된다고 보았다. 따라서 이 영적인 세계에서는 우주와 인간의 영혼이 서로 통신하며 실제로 교류할 수 있다는 것이다. 보엠은 좀 더 인간에 관심을 가지고 있다. 그의 인간과 신의 합일사상이 블레이크의 신성인간이며 예이츠의 황금새벽의 이상형이다. 우주의 질서와 조화를 강조한 보엠은 예이츠에게 시적 상상력이 신성과 같은 단계이며 시인은 마치 영매처럼 우주와 영혼, 즉 인간의 세계와 신의 세계를 볼 수 있는 능력을 가진 견자(seer)이며 연결할 수 있는 통신자(correspondences)라는 것을 말해주고 있다.

Recently, the term of spirituality is drawing people’s special attention, in particular, in Christianity. However, for the diverse or multi-meanings of spirituality, it is neither easy to define it clearly, nor to use it suitably. In this paper, I try to approach this theme focusing on the history of Christian mysticism, in particular, Protestant one. In general, the mainstreams in Church history have tended to know God in academic ways. But, one can find that there have been other ways to approach God, which has been known as mysticism. While there is a strong tendency to identify mysticism with superstition in Korea, mysticism has a long history in Christianity, seeking a spiritual union with God. During the Middle Age, monasteries were the center of mysticism. However, in the case of Protestantism, where monasticism could not find its place, such a tradition persistently has appeared in a variety of forms and ways. During the Reformation, the Reformers focused their attentions on the doctrine of justification by faith, while Anabaptists had more concern about the mystical and moral aspects of Christian life. In the 17th century, however, Pietism and Puritanism began to appear paying more attention to the changed life of Christians. As a result, regeneration and sanctification became popularized along with, or even instead of justification. During the 18th century, spiritual experience became a central concern for many evangelicals in the American colonies as well as the Great Britain. The pivotal figures during the First Great Awakening preached a series of sermons on regeneration or conversion. They emphasized the significance of spiritual experience by revivals which led believers to the higher state of piety, that is, sanctification or holiness. Such a trend persisted during the nineteenth century. A variety of holiness movements sought to have the experience of entire sanctification by the Baptism of the Holy Spirit. In the case of Charles G. Finney, however, he attempted to synthesize both personal holiness and social reform in his controversial revivals. The twentieth century opened its door with the appearance of Pentecostalism. This radical version of holiness movement shaped its theological and spiritual identity by placing its primary emphasis upon the doctrine of speaking in tongue as the physical sign of the Baptism of the Holy Spirit. By this new movement, the Holy Spirit became more popularized, and the Charismatic experiences became one of the most serious concerns of modern Christians regardless of their denominational differences. Currently, the so-called “Emerging Church” is drawing a more fresh and attractive attention from many Christians, which tries to apply the ancient types of spirituality to the postmodern atmosphere. Likewise, the Protestant spirituality has been trying to find or construct its path in a variety of ways. Such a sacred struggling is still going on.

In the 1926 Clark Lectures at Cambridge, T. S. Eliot redrew the map of metaphysical poetry in the Western literature by including not just the Metaphysical poets of the 17th century England but Lucretius, Dante, and Baudelaire among many others. In the Lectures, published posthumously in 1993 under the title of The Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, Eliot also revaluated the metaphysical poems of Dante and Donne in terms of their socio-cultural, philosophical, and religious background. Especially, Christian mysticism was, Eliot insisted, one of the most important factors in understanding these great poets’ works accurately. According to Eliot’s somewhat idiosyncratic genealogy of Christian mysticism, it could be basically divided into two streams: ontological-classical and psychological- romantic. A fundamental tenet of ontological-classical mysticism is that God is transcendental and the vision of God can “only be attained by a process in which the analytic intellect took apart.” By contrast, God, for psychological-romantic mystics, is immanent and a human being has an innate capability to perceive and recognize God-head intuitively and to be united with it, whether momentarily or not.Ontological-classical mysticism, whose origin Eliot attributed to Aristotle’s metaphysics, was developed by such theologians as Richard of St. Victor and Thomas Aquinas, and culminated in Dante’s poetry aesthetically. Notably, for Eliot, Dante was not merely a religious poet faithful to his own mysticism but, far more importantly, the paradigmatic figure of what Eliot famously called “united sensibility.” Inextricably combined with Eliot’s enthusiastic support of both Dante’s mysticism and his poetic achievement is his radical revision of the aesthetics of united sensibility; in addition to union of thought and feeling, order, system, and harmony, as championed by classicism, toward which he increasingly inclined, become essential parts of united sensibility. In contrast to Dante, Donne, once eulogized as a representative poet of united sensibility by Eliot himself, was degraded into a precursor of “dissociation of sensibility.” Behind this dissociation, Eliot claimed. lay Donne’s embracement of psychological-romantic mysticism, originated from Plotinus and fully developed by Eckhardt, Ignatius, Theresa and St. John of the Cross. By reading closely Donne’s “The Extasie” and examining its dualistic view of soul and body, Eliot exemplified how the poet’s disintegrated sensibility is merged with his psychological mysticism.

Bernard’s ‘Sermones super Cantica Canticorum’ is his masterpiece and the superlative achievement of his mystical theology. The aim of this paper is to explore Bernard’s sermons introductorily, i. e. their background, literary form, contents, to put them across in their entirety. The Canticle is interpreted allegorical as follows: christological (ecclesiastical), mystical, mariological. In accordance with the traditional interpretation, Bernard interprets the bride as the soul thirsting for God. In addition, he links the traditional allegorical interpretation with the individual experience which the religious subject has. Although Bernard preached to his community, it seems, on the basis of evidence from the letters and the sermons, that Bernard’s 86 sermons on the Song of Songs are so much edited and altered, and they do not exhibit us the sermons as preached. So they are to regard as ‘more the product of the scriptorium rather than the pulpit’, more the literary work rather than the oral sermon. The mystical theology, which is contained in the sermons, is first the nuptial (bridal) mysticism. The bride is the individual soul loving God, and her ultimate aim is the mystical union with God (spiritual marriage). Bernard depicts this religious development with three kind of kisses. Second, his mystical theology is the Christ-mysticism. Bernard concentrates his meditative, contemplative attention on the suffered, crucified Christ. Therefore, his mysticism is to call as suffering-mysticism (cross-mysticism). The character of his mysticism is the emphasis on the experience. The spiritual experience is for Bernard the source of the religious, theological knowledge. The central experience is both self-knowledge and God-knowledge, and both are inevitable for our salvation. Finally, Bernard’s mysticism has the traditional structure of the mysticism, yet it also is to designate as the latin mysticism which is christ-centric and emphasizes the love and the experience. Bernard’s mystical sermons on the song of songs do not aim at knowing the divine mysteries but consummating spiritual union with God.

There are many themes and many contradictory aspects in T. S. Eliot's works, such as religious themes of Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism, and philosophical themes of time and space, conflict and unification, and good and evil. It is natural that a researcher of T. S. Eliot has an impulse of finding out a whole and inclusive code which can cover most of the themes in his work. My argument is that we can find an effective critical Ariadne of Christian mysticism to provide a narrative thread to unite and reconcile various contradictory themes like conflict and unification. This thesis intends to reveal that T. S. Eliot’s criticism has much in a common with many kinds of mystic thoughts. Many mystic scholars define the various aspects of mysticism; immanence and transcendence, and introvertive mysticism and extrovertive mysticism. F. C. Happold, Evelyn Underhi11, and Colin Wilson are the influential mystical scholars whose concepts of unification and transcendental experience are found in their works. Among the critics who approach Eliot’s works from the perspective of Christian mysticism are Karl Shapiro, Robert Sencourt, Lyndall Gordon, Kristian Smidt and F. M. Ishak. Their comments provide effective supplement to the thought of medieval Christians represented by Pseudo-Dionysius and John of the Cross. The core concepts of Eliot’s criticism can be found in Eliot’s critical discourse about his predecessors, written from the perspective of Christian mysticism. As Eliot says, surrendering oneself to the work to be done is the best way to reaching depersonalization. We can say that the course of depersonalization is similar to the course of the union to God in that each of them has the extinction of emotions and selves. And so it will be said that the objective correlative is to the art what the union with God is to the religious self. The sexual experience of Dante is said to be not a simple experience but a mature reflection related to the attraction towards God. This shows that a common and simple everyday experience can be a divine and reverential experience in the mystical point of view. Seen from the point of view of Eliot, the terrible experience like the despair and disil1usion of Baudelaire can also be the prelude and joy of faith. Eliot said that Tennyson also had the aspect of Christian mysticism in that he was desperately anxious to hold the faith of the believer. According to Eliot's view, Tennyson’s despair and doubt can be said to be an intense experience and a penultimate stage of ‘dark night of soul'. In conclusion, various critical and philosophical concepts of Eliot such as impersonal theory, unified sensibility, tradition, objective correlative, and the Absolute can be unified ín the scheme of Christian mystícism. By followíng various critical essays about poets, Eliot can be said to manifest his attitude and belief towards Christian mysticism.

Eli야 was definitely intrigued by mysticism. He dreamt of becoming a saint when he was young. His mother, who wrote poems depicting mysticism, influenced him greatly. He greedily read many books on mysticism such as Christian Mysticism (1 899) by W. R. Inge, The Varieties 01 Rel.땅ious Experience (1902) by William James, and Mysticism (1911) by Evelyn UnderhiII among others while at Harvard. He apparently had his mystical expe꺼ence during his stay at Harvard. For these reasons, he tried to seek a philosophical explanation of his mystical experiences and mysticism in general. He’d like to obtain an intellectual explanation of his mystical moments. I explore Eliot’s transcendental taste for mysticism by studying Eliofs philosophical joumey into mysticism. This paper is focused mainly on Henri Bergson’s and F. H. Bradley’s ideas, which are essential to a philosophical survey of mysticism. First, Eliot was interested in Bergson’s concept that boiled down to ’duration’(durée), in which Iife takes on an amorphous state or duration. His idea of duration suggests that movement and change are inherent to reality. It tends to largely emphasize the imminence of reality; therefore, it is not useful in explaining the unity of what is perennially absolute. Eliot looked for a more comprehensive philosophy. Thus, his concem moved to Bradley’s ’immediate experience' in which subject and object are unified and people could have a mystical moment. Consequently, Bradley's philosophy allows EIi이 to intellectually figure out his mystical experience and the concept of mysticism as a whole. Besides Bradleyan philosophy, St. John’s idea, the conception of Madψamika of Buddhism, the thoughts of Yoga among others in his poetη also tend to stress the transcendental side of mystical experience. The renunciation of self is very important to those kinds of ideas. I admit that though a poet Eliot has been inf1uenced by imminent side of mysticism, a mystic Eliot has a taste for transcendental mystlclsm.