This article explores the nature of locality principle. In particular, we compare two recent conceptions of locality, which are Chomsky`s (2001a, 2001b) phase-based implementation of locality and Hiraiwa`s (2003) version of cyclic derivational locality. We present a new piece of empirical arguments against Hiraiwa (2003) from locality circumvention effects observed in passivization of applicative structures. We show that the locality circumvention phenomenon induced by wh-movement of a higher internal argument when a lower internal argument undergoes passivizing A-movement past it in low applicative structures cannot be explained under Hiraiwa`s cyclic locality computation, whereas it can be well accounted for under Chomsky`s phase-based evaluation view, which is a partly representational version of locality principle.

T. S. Eliot has woven into the fabric of Four Quartets themes and symbols from a variety of Christian and non-Christian mystical sources. One of the powerful mystical elements is derived from the 16th century Spanish mystic, St. John of the Cross, whose spiritual exercises stand for the Negative Way. In the Western theology, there are two distinctive ways in which Christian saints or poets can perceive the Divine Reality. They are the Affirmative Way and the Negative Way. The Affirmative Way is the same idea with the doctrine or poetry of immanence, and the Negative Way with the doctrine or poetry of transcendence. T. S. Eliot's poetry is influenced by the tradition of the Negative Way or the poetry of transcendence. This thesis intends to study what characteristics the Affirmative Way or the Negative Way respectively has, and what is the theory of St. John's dark night of the soul. Also it wishes to trace which elements Eliot took from St. John and which elements he refused to take. Finally, in his masterpiece Four Quartets, this study will observe how St. John's negative theology is crystallized into the inner structure of the poem. Also this thesis wishes to reveal in what sense Eliot's poetry can be named the poetry of transcendence. Hopkins perceives the unity of nature, a poet and God, therefore he depicts the nature like "The world is charged with the grandeur of God." But Eliot is not eager to perceive the immanent presence of God in the power and beauty of nature. Instead, the poet is evoked with partial ecstasy and partial dread and goes through purgation process and afterwards reaches self-oblivion or union with God. In Eliot's idiom, he wishes to "go by a way wherein there is no ecstasy." In "Burnt Norton" III and "East Coker" III Eliot gives powerful expression to St. John's Negative Way. In these parts Eliot tries to apply St. John's theory, which was, originally, individual way of spiritual exercises, to diagnosing the collective spiritual darkness of modern London. Eliot seems to declare such a modern society must pass through the painful self-negation and complete deprivation, as shown in St. John's Negative Way. According to John X. Cooper, such idea of Eliot's is possibly true, because if the individual purification cannot bring us back from the abyss, the mere social world can hold absolutely no hope. We can hear Eliot's prophetic voice saying that after descending to the bottom and confronting the absolute solitude and abyss, the soul can arise from the dark night of purgation towards the world of light. Four Quartets, however, remains first and foremost a poem not a poetic version of mystical theology. Although Eliot alludes to and even paraphrases St. John's dark night of the soul, St. John's negative theology can be only one of the powerful threads in Eliot's poetical fabric.

This paper deals with the relation between filling the Spec position and the Extended Projection Principle(EPP). In Chomsky (1995), the EPP is a strong feature of a functional head causing the relevant feature and the residual constituent to raise. On the other hand, in the sense of Chomsky (2000), the EPP is the requirement that some functional heads must have a specifier. However, Bo kovi (2002) argues that the EPP should be eliminated. According to him, the "final EPP" follows from Case theory, and the "intermediate EPP" is filled as a result of the requirement of successive cyclicity (i.e., locality). In addition, Bo kovi (2002) claims that successive cyclicity should be required by a property of the movement itself, not by a property of intermediate heads. In this paper, we discuss whether those arguments against the EPP can be maintained or not in expletive constructions.

Dong-Whee Yang. 2003. Optionality, Output effects and the EPP. Studies in Modern Grammar 32, 43-68. This paper claims that optionality is part of the `optimal design` for natural language in the sense that it is bound to induce some `effect on outcome` which should also be some necessary part of natural language. Specifically, it is argued that the optionality in the Korean Case system, an `imperfection` in the minimalist sense, is justified as an `apparent imperfection` in terms of output effects, or Int effects (Chomsky 2000), which are shown to be two types: A-type and B-type. The A-type Int effects are `week` like specificity, definiteness, thematicity, etc., being interpreted at the canonical Specs, whereas the B-type Int effects are `strong` like focus, specialized semantic function. etc., being interpreted at the non-canonical Specs. The A-type Int effects are claimed to be due to lexically-posited EPP-features whereas the B-type Int effects are claimed to be due to derivationally-introduced EPP-features. Lexically-posited EPP-features are either obligatory or optional whereas derivationally-introduced EPP-features are only optional. It is shown that the interface strategy in terms of output Int effects is superior to Hiraiwa`s (2002) ф-over-ф generalization in the accounts for obligatoriness of the EPP-feature.

Jong-Bok Kim. 2003. Focus Projections in English, Korean, and Greek and Their Topological Implications. Studies in Modern Grammar 32, 1-23. One of the important issues in information packaging theory is how to capture the projection of focus at sentence level. This paper shows that in three typological different languages (English: SVO, Korean: SOV, Greek: VSO), the order in argument structure (rather than linear order) plays an important role in determining various possibilities of inheritance of focus. This paper proposes that what is relevant for determining the possibility of VP focus in such cases is the argument structure ordered not in terms of theta-roles but in terms of grammatical relations. The need for such a level of argument structure gets strong motivations from phenomena such as binding, control, relativization, and so forth. Following this line, we assume that the argument structure with grammatical functions is ordered as SUBJ-OBJ-OBJ2-OBLIQUE in which if A precedes B in the argument-structure, A has a higher rank than (i. e. outranks) B. This comparative study among three typologically different languages reveals that the variations in the ordering of grammatical functions induce the differences in focus projections. In addition, the focus projections in the three languages support the view that the argument structure hierarchy is the locus of focus projection.

The `Extended Projection Principle` (EPP) has been a pervasive topic of research and a pervasive mystery since it was first formulated by Chomsky (1981). That initial formulation is not precise, but its intention is clear enough: The EPP (here called by Chomsky `principle P`) "is the structural requirement that certain configurations … must have subjects …" ［p.27］ Over the years since, its existence as an independent constraint has often been called into question, on the grounds that it is redundant with other principles, especially those concerning Case (by Fukui and Speas (1986) for example), or that it is literally unformulable given other theoretical desiderata (Epstein and Seely (1999)). I will review those arguments. I will also survey a range of phenomena involving infinitival constructions that provide strong empriical evidence for the EPP. In particular, I will show that in ECM constructions, while the ECM subject sometimes raises overtly to a canonical Case positon (Spec of AgrO), it also sometimes remains in embedded subject position, a position that it is in solely to satisfy the EPP (Lasnik (2001b)). The next question is just how the EPP is to be formulated. Alexiadou and Anagnostopoulou (1998) argue that there are actually two different kinds of languages with respect to the EPP, those (like Greek) where X˚movement suffices versus those where only an XP can satisfy the EPP. I will examine English, a matter of strong feature checking, as in Chomsky (1995), or the requirement that certain functional heads require a specifier, as in Chomsky`s original version and the more recent one in Chomsky (2000). This question turns out to be surprisingly intricate, with arguments for the strong feature version (Merchant 92001), and against it (Lasnik (2001a)).

Sung - Hy uk Park . 2002 . T he Ex tended Projection Principle in the Minimali s t Prog ram . S t ud ie s in M od e rn Gram ma r 27, 1- 35 . The Extended Projection Principle (EPP ), which requires that clauses have subject s, has been playing a central role in Chomsky ' s generative grammar ever since it was proposed in Chomsky (1981, 1982). The EPP, however, shifts from a requirement on clausal structure to a requirement on feature checking in the Minimalist Program, i.e., a feature on the head T of TP. From its inception on to the present , the EPP has had a flavor of oddity in that it is not a principle of its own standing, despite it s name. In Chomsky ' s (1981, 1982) original formulation, the principle is incorporated into the clause- expanding phrase structure rule, whereas in the Minimalist Program, the EPP feature is assumed to be a feature of a feature. All in all, the EPP is largely stipulative and redundant, hence it may be suggested that the principle should be eliminated from the grammar . Proposals have been presented by quite a few syntacticians to derive the EPP effect from some independent principle(s ) and/or module(s) of the grammar . Among these proposals, Bo kovi (2001) seems to be the most promising one. His explanation of the so- called intermediate EPP effect, however, needs some qualification if it is to be true to the basic tenet of the Minimalist Program that every movement is feature- driven.

The word “permaculture” is a contraction of “permanent agriculture” or “permanent culture”. Permaculture principles are designed to support (or ensure) the survival of humanity, the earth and all on it, and, to improve our standard of living. Permaculture can be defined as：a design system for creating sustainable human environments that can be (relatively) easily constructed and maintained. The principles of permaculture designs are：relative location every element (such as house, rice paddy, road, etc) is placed in relation to each other such that each assists the other；each element performs multiple functions；each function is supported by many elements；energy efficient planning；using biological resources rather than fossil fuels；energy cycling on site (both fuel and human energy)；Using and accelerating natural plant succession to establish favourable sites and soils；poly󰠏culture and diversity of beneficial species for a productive, interactive system；use of edge and natural patterns for best effect. These principles can be used for any permaculture design, in any climate, and at any scale. There has been very little scientific examination of Permaculture, and as such, it must be viewed as a design philosophy.

Sun-Woong Kim. 2001. A Study on the EPP in the Minimalist Program: the EPP as a PF Requirement. Studies in Modern Grammar 24, 47-66. The general aim of this paper is to explore the nature and role of the EPP within the Minimalist Program of generative grammar. This paper draws the conclusion that the EPP effect is captured by V to I head movement. Specifically, the EPP effect will be shown to be a side effect or epiphenomena of the head movement at PF (Chomsky 1999) plus an effect of configurationally defined θ-theory. This conclusion will be shown to remedy drawbacks of recent proposals of Kim (2000) and Jang (2000). This paper also attempts to reject the morphological feature checking approach to the EPP, whether it is a categorial feature checking or a Case feature checking. Furthermore, if head movement is a PF process, it can be concluded that the EPP effect is eventually a PF requirement that the Spec-T must be filled with some category that contains argumenthood in it. If the conclusions of this paper are on the right track, Lasnik`s (2000) doubt that only the EPP is configurational can be solved in a natural way.

Lee Bok-hee. 1998. Coherence and Relevance Principle in Discourse Interpretation. Studies in Modern Grammar 13, 181-196. Many coherence theorists set themselves two related goals: (a) to provide a theory of comprehension, explaining how discourses are understood; (b) to provide a theory of evaluation or appropriateness. Goal (a) is shared with relevance theory, which aims to provide a theory of comprehension. However, relevance theory has no explicit goal equivalent to (b). Giora`s interest is in goal (b). In particular, she suggests that relevance theory sheds no light on two main types of intuition: (a) local intuitions about when two adjacent discourse segments are related to each other or to a common topic; (b) global intuitions about when a text or discourse hangs together as a unit, rather than constituting a series of isolated remarks. This is the substantive issue in this paper I want to discuss.