Background: The application of crop rotation systems may reduce the occurrence of soil-borne diseases by releasing allelochemicals and by subsequent microbial decomposition. Methods and Results: For reduction of ginseng root rot by the crop rotation system, after harvesting 6-year-old ginseng, fresh ginseng was grown along with continuous cultivation of sweet potato, peanut, and bellflower. Growth of 2-year-old ginseng was significantly inhibited in the continuous cultivation than in the first cultivation. Sweet potato, peanut and bellflower cultivations assisted in obtaining normal yields of ginseng in the first year after the harvest of 6-year-old ginseng. Salt concentration, potassium and sodium contents were gradually decreased, and, organic matter was gradually increased through cirp rotation. Phosphate, calcium and magnesium contents were not altered. The density of the root rot fungus was gradually decreased by the increase in crop rotation; however it was decreased distinctly in the first year compared to the second and third year. The severity of root rot disease tended to decrease gradually by the increase of crop rotation. Conclusions: Short-term crop rotation for three years promoted the growth of ginseng, however root rot infection was not inhibited significantly, although it was somewhat effective in lowering the density of the root rot pathogen.

Background: In Korea, 6-year-old ginseng root is economically more important than 4 or 5-year-old roots. In general, the root age is determined by counting the number of stem vestiges. However, this method does not accurately estimate ginseng root age. Methods and Results: In this study, the stem vestige counting method was used to survey a total of 18,395 fresh ginsengs cultured in 2014, and 2015, to determine the accuracy of this method. The proportion of 6-year-old roots, with more than four stem vestiges, was 46.1% in 2014. For the cultivar Chunpoong cultivated in Eumseong and Goesan countries in 2015, the proportion of more than four stem vestiges was 55.9%, and 43.5%, respectively. The proportion of more than four stem vestiges for the Gumpoong cultivated in Eumseong and Yangpyeong countries was 67.0%, and 35.1%, respectively, whereas that for the cultivar Yunpoong was 36.0% and 61.0%, respectively. Moreover, it was confirmed that differences in the levels of Rg1 will enable root age determination. Conclusions: Root age determination by the stem vestige test was found to differ depending on the environmental and cultivation conditions. To determine the age of ginseng roots, a comprehensive method, such as counting stem vestiges and evaluating differences in ginsenoside levels, should be applied.

Background: Dehisced ginseng seeds need to be stored at cold temperatures for around 3 months to break their physiological dormancy, and thus, to aid in gemination. In the presence of high moisture in such an environment, seed spoilage and pre-germination may lower seed quality and productivity. To improve seed quality during cold-stratification, the effects of seed dehydration and temperature were tested. Methods and Results: In early December, dehisced ginseng seeds were dehydrated at 4 different levels and stored at 2℃- 2℃, and –20℃ for 3 months. Germination was carried out on the filter papers moistened with distilled water; emergence of root, shoot, and seed spoilage were assessed. Seed viability was examined by the tetrazolium test. More than 90% of the seeds stored at 2℃ and –2 ℃ without drying or endocarp dehydration germinated, but seeds that were dehydrated to have a moisture content (MC) below 31% showed poor germination and lost their viability. In addition, the seeds stored at –20℃ failed to show effective germination. Conclusions: Seed storage after endocarp dehydration might help to improve seed quality and increase seedling's ability to stand during the spring-sowing of ginseng.

This study was conducted to examine the antioxidant activities and physiological activities of mixture extracts (Liriope platyphylla, Schizandra chinensis and Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) with different extraction mixing ratios (MEC, 2:1:1; ME1, 1:2:1; ME2, 1:1:2; ME3, 1.34:1.33:1.33). The yield of extracts ranged from 25.33 to 33.87%. The total polyphenol and total flavonoid contents of ME1 extracts were 1.01 g/100 g, 0.07 g/100 g, respectively. The total sugar contents of MEC extract was 22.83 g/100 g, respectively. The DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities of ME1 extracts at 1,000 μg/mL were 26.79% and 21.08%. The superoxide radical scavenging and ferric-reducing antioxidant power of ME1 extracts at 1,000 μg/mL were 67.83% and 295.47 μM, respectively. The functionalities of extracts were investigated with L-132 and RAW264.7 cell lines. The extracts on different mixing ratios did not show the toxicity on L-132 and RAW264.7 cell line in 100-2,500 μg/mL. The ME1 extract of 1,000 μg/mL performed better than other extracts protective effects against oxidative stess in L-132 cells (81.22%) and the ME2 extract at 1,000 μg/mL decreased nitric oxide production by 7.48 μM which was more potent than other extracts. There results suggest that the ME1 extracts may be a useful functional food material in the food industry.

Background: Ginseng is a perennial crop grown for more than four years in the same place. Therefore, it is highly affected by the soil environment, especially nutrients in the soil. The present study was carried out to investigate to the influence of boron and iron concentrations on the physiological status, growth, and mineral uptake of ginseng to obtain the basic information for diagnosing a physiological disorder in ginseng plants. Methods and Results: The boron and iron concentrations were controlled at 3, 30, 150, 300 and 2, 20, 100, 200㎎/ℓ, respectively. When treated with 150㎎/ℓ of boron, the ginseng plants showed yellowing or necrosis symptoms at the edge or end of their leaves. Compared with the 3㎎/ℓ treatment, the root weight decreased by 13 and 24% in the 150 and 300㎎/ℓ treatments, respectively. When treated with 20㎎/ℓ of iron, the ginseng plants showed yellowing between the veins of the leaves followed by the formation of brown spots. The root weight gradually decreased with increasing iron concentration. Approximately 55% decrease in root weight was observed upon treatment with 200㎎/ℓ of iron. Conclusions: The boron toxicity occurs in the leaves of ginseng at the boron concentration of approximately 1,900㎎/㎏ or more. The iron toxicity occurs at the iron concentration of approximately 120㎎/㎏ for leaves and 270㎎/㎏ for roots.

Background : Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is one of the most important medicinal plants in Korea, but its yields are often reduced by a variety of root pathogens. The root rot of ginseng is a destructive soil-borne disease caused by Cylindrocarpon destructans (teleomorph: Ilyonectria radicicola). Methods and Results : Ilyonectria radicicola and its Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph represent a species complex that is commonly associated with root rot disease symptoms on virulence. During the course of this study, several species could be distinguished from I. radicicola sensu stricto based on morphological and culture characteristics. As results of investigated culture characteristics, optimal temperature for mycelial growth of isolates were 20℃, and colony pattern and color were slightly different on PDA. Isolates of I. radicicola were analyzed for their genetic relatedness based on several genes and microsatellite region. I. radicicola group was divided into two small groups. Conclusion : Therefore, we were able to confirm pathogenicity and genetic difference between the isolates in each of the groups of the pathogen. Among these isolates, 21.5% were classified as highly virulent and 78.5% were weakly virulent. *(Corresponding

Background : Ginseng is a perennial plant and damaged by various diseases and insect pests. The damage lowers harvest and quality. Accordingly, a chemical control system was made with the aim of effectively control gray mold, anthrax, and spotting disease which occur during growth period. fungicide resistance of gray mold rot was examined to find out whether the chemical control system can be used over the long term. Methods and Results : This experiment was conducted in three areas including Geumsan-gun, Yesan-gun, and Sejong city. The chemical control system was done to the plants of two years old or older. As for the order of the treatment, from the end of April to May Fludioxonil (A) and Pyraclostrobin (B) were used; from the mid-May to the end of July of growth stages Difenoconazole (C), Iminoctadinetris (albesilate) (D), Cyprodinil (E), Metconazole (F), Fluazinam (G) and Pyrimethanil (H); from August to September nonresidualizing polyoxinB + mancozeb (K); in November of hibernating period, Fenhexamid (I) and Carbendazim/diethofencarb (J) were used. As for the interval, from the end of April to the end of July the interval was 10 days, in August and September once a month, and twice in every ten days in November. The isolation of Botrytis cinerea for examination into mycelial growth inhibition rate was conducted to 4-year old ginseng in Geumsan, 5-year old in Yesan, and 3-year old in Sejong. In Geumsan, the mycelial growth inhibition rate to Botrytis cinerea was 75.5% - 100%. Every fungicides showed good rate of mycelial growth inhibition. The lowest rate was seen in fungicide B at 75.5%. K showed the prevention rate at 76.8%, D at 82.7%, and I at 82.2%, and other fungicides at 100%. In Sejong area, the hyphal prevention rate of Botrytis cinerea was 71.0% - 100%, indicating all fungicides show good rate of mycelial growth inhibition. The lowest rate was recorded by fungicide B at 71.1%, D at 81.1%, K at 85.4%, and I at 95.4%. Yesan area also showed similar results to those of Geumsan and Sejong. Conclusion : Botrytis cinerea was isolated from ginseng and mycelial growth inhibition effect was examined in concentration of 11 kinds of fungicides. In all three areas where chemical control system were applied, resistance was not found, suggesting that the chemical control system can be applied to control diseases of ginseng.

Background : Ginseng is a perennial plant and damaged by various diseases and insect pests. The damage lowers harvest and quality. In particular, gray mold rot occurs to plants of every year, growth duration, and hibernating stage, and decays leaves, stems, and roots, lowering the amount of harvest. This experiment was conducted with the aim of effectively preventing gray mold rot, and other major diseases such as anthrax and spotting disease, and establishing chemical control system. Methods and Results : This experiment was conducted in three areas including Geunsan-gun, Yesan-gun, and Sejong city. As for the procedure of medical treatment, from the end of April to early May of germination period, Fludioxonil and Pyraclostrobin were used. From the mid-May to the end of July of growth period, Difenoconazole, Iminoctadine tris (albesilate), Cyprodinil, Metconazole, Fluazinam, and Pyrimethanil were used. From August to September, non residualizing polyoxinB + mancozeb was used. In November of hibernating stage, Fenhexamid and Carbendazim/diethofencarb were used. As for the interval, from the end of April to the end of July the interval was 10 days, in August and September once a month, and twice in every ten days in November. The chemical control system effect was compared with conventional prevention. When chemical control system was used, stem spotting disease occurred at a lower rate of 0.34% than 1.2% of the conventional method. Leaf spotting disease occurred at a lower rate of 1.4% compared with 7.1% of the conventional method, and anthrax occurred at a lower rate by more than 10% than the conventional method. Stem gray mold rot occurred at a rate of 4.1% when the conventional method was used, but the rate stood at 5.3% in Geumsan, 8.9% in Yesan, 2.3% in Sejong when the prevention method was used, which suggest the chemical control system was effective. Conclusion : When chemical control system was applied to prevent major diseases of ginseng, spotting disease, anthrax, and gray mold occurred at lower rates compared with the case where the conventional method was used. The finding is that the chemical control system can be utilized to prevent major diseases of ginseng.

Background : Korean ginseng is an important cash crop in Asian countries. However, plant yield is reduced by pathogens. Among the Ilyonectria radicicola-species complex, I. mors-panacis is responsible for root-rot and replant failure of ginseng in Asia. It is essential to find a way to reveal the existence of the pathogen before starting cultivation. Therefore, qRT-PCR method is developed to detect and quantify the pathogen in ginseng soils. Methods and Results : In this study, species specific Histone H3 primer set is developed for the quantification of I. mors-panacis. The primer set was applied on DNA of other microbes to evaluate its sensitivity and selectivity on I. mors-panacis DNA. Sterilized soil samples artificially infected by the pathogen in different concentrations were used to evaluate the ability of the primer set to detect the pathogen population in the soil DNA. Finally, the pathogen was quantified in many natural soil samples. The designed primer set was found to be sensitive and selective to I. mors-panacis DNA. In artificially infected sterilized soil samples, the estimated template using qRT-PCR was positively correlated with the pathogen concentration in soil samples (R2=0.94), disease severity index (R2=0.99), and colony forming unit (R2=0.87). In the natural soils, the pathogen was recorded in the most of fields produce bad yields with the range of 5.82 ± 2.35 to 892.34 ± 103.70 pg/g of soil. Conclusion : According to the presented results, the proposed primer set is applicable for estimating soils quality before ginseng cultivation. This will help in the disease management and crop protection in the future.

Background : While the anti-inflammatory effects of 20 (S)-ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) have been studied, it remains unclear how Rg3 regulates lipid metabolism in inflammatory macrophages. Thus, in this study, we characterized some eicosanoids related to the anti-inflammatory effects of 20 (S)-ginsenoside Rg3 in murine macrophages. Methods and Results : UPLC-MS/MS was used to profile various eicosanoids from RAW264.7 cells treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Rg3. The profiling data were statistically analyzed by principal component analysis, hierarchical clustering analysis and analysis of variance. The anti-inflammatory effect of Rg3 was validated by assessing the levels of nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 in the activated macrophages treated with Rg3. A total of 69 eicosanoids were analyzed in RAW264.7 cells. Principal component and hierarchical cluster analyses differentiated control cells from cells treated with LPS, Rg3, or LPS + Rg3 for 12 or 24 h. Furthermore, some differentially regulated compounds were found between macrophages treated with LPS for 24 h and those treated with LPS + Rg3 for 24 h. Conclusion : Rg3 alters eicosanoid metabolism in activated macrophages treated with LPS. Furthermore, we identified several eicosanoids correlated with the anti-inflammatory activity of Rg3.

Background : Korea ginseng root has been traditionally used as a tonic as it is stated to have the capacity to normalize body functions and strengthen systems that are caused by various stresses. So, ginseng is functional food with the functionalities certified by Korea Food and Drug Administration. But, there are not many different products using ginseng. This study was conducted to develop the new ginseng beverage product using emulsify process. Methods and Results : White ginseng and red ginseng, 4-years old, prepared were ground to 60 ± 5 mesh using a grinder (Cyclotec 1093, POSS Co., Swiss). Emulsion with white ginseng powder (WGP) and lipid phase (canola oil) were prepared using the modified method (Yun & Hong, 2007). Oil-in water emulsions were made by homogenizing (5,000 – 15,000 rpm, 20 – 60 min), and then were analysed ginsenosides content, protein and polysaccharide content. The higher the speed of homogenizer and the longer the time, the higher the ginsenosides extraction rate. On emulsifying for 60 min at 12,000 rpm, ginsenosides were extracted by more than 95%. Red ginseng powder (RGP) was superior to WGP in emulsified activity, but WGP was superior to RGP in emulsion stabilizing. Comparing components of WGP and RGP emulsion, RGP had more ginsenosides content than WGP, and less polysaccharides content. When mixing WGP and RGP with a ratio of 90 : 10 – 70 : 30, the emulsion have excellent emulsifying and stabilizing. Conclusion : Thus, WGP and RGP are the same ginseng, but they have different physiological characteristics because their manufacturing process is different. These studies may provide new product development for effective utilization of ginseng by using excellent emulsion stabilizing of WGP and emulsifying of RGP.

Background : This study aimed to identify the mechanisms of the antinociceptive effects of PG in the fibromyalgia (FM)-like animal model. Methods and Results : To assess the possible effect of PG on FM symptoms, we constructed a FM animal model induced by intermittent cold stress with slight modification. All mice underwent nociceptive assays using electronic von Frey anesthesiometer and Hargreaves equipment. To assess the relation between PG and the expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and phosphorylated CREB (p-CREB), western blotting and immunohistochemistry analyses were performed. In behavioral analysis, nociception tests showed that the pain threshold was significantly decreased in the FM group compared to control group. Western blot and immunohistochemical analyses of the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus showed downregulation of BDNF and p-CREB proteins in the FM group compared to control group. PG recovered these changes at behavioral tests and protein level. These results provide evidence that the effects of PG extract in the FM model may be related to its modulating effect on the BDNF signaling pathway in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. Conclusion : Our animal model may be involved in the mechanism by which PG extract is effective as a therapeutic agent for FM.