The effectiveness of a crystalline natural barrier in providing sealing capabilities is based on the behavior of numerous fractures and their intersections within the rock mass. It is important to evaluate the evolving characteristics of fractured rock, as the hydro-mechanical coupled processes occurring through these fractures play a dominant role. KAERI is actively developing a true tri-axial compression test system and concurrently conducting hydro-mechanical experiments using replicated fractured rock samples. This research is focused on a comprehensive examination of coupled processes within fractures, with a particular emphasis on the development of true tri-axial testing equipment. The designed test system has the capability to account for three-dimensional stress conditions, including vertical and both maximum and minimum horizontal principal stresses, realizing the disposal conditions at specific underground depths. Notably, the KAERI-designed test system employs the mixed true tri-axial concept, also known as the Mogi-type, which allows for fluid flow into fractures under tri-axial compression conditions. This system utilizes a hydraulic chamber to maintain constant stress in one direction through the application of oil pressure, while the other two directional stresses are applied using rigid platens with varying magnitudes. Once these mechanical stress conditions are established, control over fluid flow is achieved through the rigid platens in contact with the specimen section. This pioneering approach effectively replicates in-situ mechanical conditions while concurrently observing the internal fluid flow patterns within fractures, thereby enhancing our capacity to study these coupled phenomena. As future research, numerical modeling efforts will be proceeding with experimental data-driven approaches to simulate the coupled behavior within the fractures. In these numerical studies, two distinct fracture geometry domains will be generated, one employing simplified rough-walled fractures and the other utilizing mismatched rough-walled fractures. These investigations mark the preliminary steps in the process of selecting and validating an appropriate numerical model for understanding the hydro-mechanical evolution within fractures.

The natural barrier system surrounding the geological repository for high-level radioactive waste plays a crucial role in preventing or delaying the leakage of radionuclides. Therefore, the natural barrier should ensure low permeability to prevent groundwater flow into the engineered barrier system throughout the repository’s lifetime. Crystalline rock, considered as the host rock for the geological repository in Korea, exhibits low intact rock permeability, but the crystalline rock often contains the multiple discontinuities due to its high brittleness that can allow the unexpected fluid flow. Therefore, the long-term hydraulic behavior of the discontinuity should be characterized while considering additional thermal, mechanical, and chemical effects. In comparison to thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical processes, the chemical processes on the discontinuities progress relatively slowly, resulting in limited researches to include these chemical processes. This research introduces mechanisms the involving coupled thermal-hydraulic-mechanicalchemical processes focusing on the rough fracture surfaces and asperities. The chemically-induced changes in mechanical and hydraulic properties are described based on pressure solution and precipitation concepts. A comprehensive review of laboratory tests, field tests, and numerical simulations is conducted related to the chemically-induced coupled processes in fractured rock. Laboratory tests, in particular, concentrate on microscopic changes in fracture asperities induced by pressure solution to analyze chemically-induced aperture changes. The TOUGHREACT, an integral finite difference method program for thermal-hydraulic-chemical simulations, is generally employed to model the chemical response of pressure solution and precipitation on fracture surfaces. The TOUGHREACT includes a module to describe effective porosity and permeability changes based on the modified cubic law, so the real-time change of the fracture permeability can be reflected during the flow simulation. Considering the coupled thermal-hydraulic-mechanicalchemical processes of discontinuity, it becomes evident that the chemical processes under repository conditions (long-term, high temperature, and high pressure) can disturb the hydraulic performance of the natural barrier, so further research is required to characterize the chemically-induced coupled processes for assessing the long-term performance of the natural barrier system.

The radwaste repository consists of a multi-barrier, including natural and engineered barriers. The repository’s long-term safety is ensured by using the isolation and delay functions of the multi-barrier. Among them, natural barriers are difficult to artificially improve and have a long time scale. Therefore, in order to evaluate its performance, site characteristics should be investigated for a sufficient period using various analytical methods. Natural barriers are classified into lithological and structural characteristics and investigated. Structural factors such as fractures, faults, and joints are very important in a natural barrier because they can serve as a flow path for groundwater in performance evaluation. Considering the condition that the radioactive waste repository should be located in the deep part, the drill core is an important subject that can identify deep geological properties that could not be confirmed near the surface. However, in many previous studies, a unified method has not been used to define the boundaries of structural factors. Therefore, it is necessary to derive a method suitable for site characteristics by applying and comparing the boundary definition criteria of various structural factors to boreholes. This study utilized the 1,000 m deep AH-3 and DB-2 boreholes and the 500 m deep AH-1 and YS- 1 boreholes drilled around the KURT (KAERI Underground Research Tunnel) site. Methods applied to define the brittle structure boundary include comparing background levels of fracture and fracture density, excluding sections outside the zone of influence of deformation, and confining the zone to areas of concentrated deformation. All of these methods are analyzed along scanlines from the brittle structure. Deriving a site-specific method will contribute to reducing the uncertainties that may arise when analyzing the long-term evolution of brittle structures within natural barriers.

Advanced countries in the field of nuclear research and technology are currently examining the feasibility of deep geological disposal as the most appropriate method for the permanent management of high-level radioactive waste, with no intention of future retrieval. Deep geological disposal involves the placement of such waste deep underground within a stable geological formation, ensuring its permanent isolation from the human environment. To guarantee the enduring isolation and retardation of radionuclides with half-lives spanning tens of thousands to millions of years from the broader ecosystem, it is imperative to comprehend the long-term evolution of deep disposal systems, especially the role of natural barriers. These natural barriers, typically consisting of bedrock, encase the repository and undergo long-term evolutions due to tectonic movements and climate variations. For the effective disposal of high-level radioactive waste, a thorough assessment of the site’s long-term geological stability is essential. This necessitates a comprehensive understanding of its tectonic evolution and development characteristics, including susceptibility to seismic and magmatic events like earthquakes and intrusions. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of alterations in the hydrogeological and geochemical environment resulting from tectonic movements over extended time frames is required to assess the potential for the migration of radionuclides. In this paper, we have examined international evaluation methodologies employed to elucidate the predictive long-term evolution of natural barriers within disposal systems. We have extracted relevant methods from international case studies and applied a preliminary scenario illustrating the long-term evolution of the geological environment at the KURT (KAERI Underground Research Tunnel) site. Nevertheless, unlike international instances, the scarcity of quantitative data limits the depth of our interpretation. To present a dependable scenario in the future, it is imperative to develop predictive technologies aimed at comprehensively studying the geological evolution processes in the Korean peninsula, particularly within the context of radioactive waste disposal.

A methodology is under development to reconstruct and predict the long-term evolution of the natural barrier comprising the site of radioactive waste disposal. The natural barrier must protect the human zone from radionuclides for a long time. So for this, we need to be able to restore the evolution of the bedrock constituting the natural barrier from the past to the present and to predict from the present to the future. A methodology is being studied using surface outcrop, tunnel face of KURT (KAERI Underground Research Tunnel), and drill core at KAERI (Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute). Among them, drill core is an essential material for identifying deep geological properties, which could not be confirmed near the surface when considering the geological condition of the repository in the deep part. In this study, we selected several qualitative and quantitative analyses to construct a deep lithological model from the disposal perspective. These were applied to drill core samples around the KURT. There are the dikes presumed the Cretaceous were intruded by Jurassic granitoids in the study area. Analyzing trace elements of each rock type in the study area classified through geochemical characteristics and microstructure in previous studies made it possible to obtain qualitative information on the petrogenetic process. In addition, synthesizing the quantitative numerical age allows for grasping the evolution of bedrock, including intrusion and cutting relationships. LAICPMS was used for determining the age of zircons in plutonic rocks. The highly reliable 40Ar-39Ar method was selected for volcanic rocks because it can correct the loss of Ar gas and obtain the values of two types of Ar isotopes in a single sample. As a result, it was possible to infer the formation environment of rocks through anomalies in specific trace element content. And according to the numerical ages, it was possible to support the known separated rock type found in previous studies or to present a quantitative precedence relation for unclassified rocks. These methods could be applied to reconstruct the long-term evolution of bedrock within natural barriers.

A radioactive waste repository consists of engineered barriers and natural barriers and must be safely managed after isolation. Geologic events in natural barriers should be categorized and evaluated according to their magnitude to assess the present and future stability of disposal. Among the longterm evolutionary elements of natural barriers, faults are a small portion of the Earth’s crust. Still, they play an important role in nuclide transport as conduits for fluids moving deep underground. In addition, the physical and chemical properties of fault rocks are useful for understanding the longterm and short-term behavior of faults. Paleomagnetic research has been used extensively and successfully for igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. In addition, magnetic characterization of fault rocks can be used to describe faults or infer the timing of major geological events along fault zones. Components of magnetization defined in fault-breccias were attributed to chemical processes associated with hydrothermal mineralization that accompanied or post-dated tectonic activity along the fault. The study of magnetic minerals in fault rocks can be used as “strain indicators”, “geothermometers”, etc. This study is a preliminary test of magnetic properties using fault gouges. Fault gouges are not well preserved in typical terrestrial environments. Access to fresh gouges typically requires trenching through faults or sampling with a core drill. Fortunately, it is a magnetic property study using a fault gouge that exists on the inner wall of KURT (KAERI Underground Research Tunnel). This is to identify the motion history of the fault and, furthermore, to understand the stress structure at the time of fault creation. In addition, it can be presented as evidence for evaluating faults that may appear in future URL (Underground Research Laboratory).

Deep geological disposal is generally accepted to be the most practical approach to handling radioactive wastes. Bentonite has been considered as a buffer material in deep geological disposal repositories (DGR) for high-level radioactive wastes. Evaluating the effect of short-term bentonite alteration on EBS performance has limitations in safety assessment over thousands of years. Information on bentonite characteristics under various conditions obtained from natural systems can be used to evaluate long-term safety of bentonite buffer. The purpose of this study was to investigate mineralogical and physicochemical characteristics of bentonite in the Naah mine located in Yangnam-myeon, Gyeongju-si for a natural analogue of the bentonite barrier in DGR. A total of 15 samples were collected at regular intervals from the bentonite layer and andesitic lapilli tuff (i.e., parent rock) at the boundary with the bentonite layer. The bentonite layer is located at a depth of about 1 m below the ground surface. Each sample was separated into particles < < 75 μm and particles < 2 μm through grinding and sedimentation processes. The separated subsamples were characterized mineralogically and physiochemically using various analytic techniques. Bentonite samples have a similar SiO2/Al2O3 ratio to the parent rock and a lower (Na+K)/Si ratio than the parent rock, indicating depletion of alkali components during bentonitization. The parent rock and bentonite samples have similar mineral composition (i.e., quartz, feldspars, opal-cristobalite-tridymite and montmorillonite). Results of XRD analysis on the randomly distributed particles < 2 μm indicate that bentonite is mostly composed of Ca-montmorillonite, which is a typical dioctahedral smectite. Results of FTIR and VNIR analysis indicate that montmorillonite contained in bentonite is Al-dioctahedral montmorillonite, and Al is substituted with Mg in some octahedron units. The mineralogical and physicochemical characteristics are similar regardless of sampling location. These results suggest that bentonite potentially exposed to weathering, located near the ground surface, has hardly altered.

The natural barrier, a component of the deep disposal system, has site-specific characteristics depending on the site of the repository, and is one of the main considerations for long-term safety evaluation after closure along with the engineered barrier among the multiple barrier systems of the repository. The natural barrier is defined in Korea as the natural underground and surface structures that can restrict the exposure of radioactive waste, human intrusion or groundwater infiltration into a disposal facility, and the transfer of radionuclides. It includes bedrocks and soils surrounding the engineered barriers of radioactive wastes [Notice of the NSSC, No. 2020021]. This study analyzed foreign regulatory requirements related to natural barriers, requirements for natural barrier and performance target of Sweden and Finland (safety functions and target characteristics of natural barriers, e.g. natural barrier composition, geological characteristics, hydrogeological characteristics). Overseas regulations and cases referenced to derive regulations of general safety requirements on natural barrier are IAEA SSG-14, SSMFS 2008:21 in Sweden, STUK/Y/4/2018 in Finland, and POSIVA SKB Report 01, a joint report between POSIVA and SKB. The repository site and repository depth should be chosen so that the geological formation provides adequately stable and favorable conditions to ensure that the repository barriers perform as intended over a sufficient period of time. The conditions intended primarily concern temperature- related, hydrological, mechanical (for example, rock mechanics and seismology) and chemical (geochemistry, including groundwater chemistry) factors. Furthermore, the repository site should be located at a secure distance from natural resources exploited today or which may be exploited in the future [SSMFS 2008:21]. Finland regulations also suggests similar requirements [STUK Y-4-2018]. According to the above regulations, POSIVA SKB report 01 mentions both the host rock and the underground opening as natural barriers and requires a safety function, and the main safety functions of the host rock and underground opening are as follows: (1) Isolation from the surface environment; (2) Favorable thermal conditions; (3) Mechanically stable conditions; (4) Chemically favorable conditions; and (5) Favorable hydrogeological conditions with limited transport of solutes. Such safety functions would provide insight for understanding of the natural barrier of deep geological disposal system.

The radioactive waste repository consists of an engineered barrier and a natural barrier and must be managed safely after isolation. We classify the geological events of natural barriers for the evaluation of their present and future disposal stability assessment, they can be divided into regional and regional evolutions according to their scale. Regional evolution can be quantitatively explained by plate tectonics and regional rock distribution, and local evolution can be explained by petrological, mineralogical evidence and ductile, brittle deformation. Plate tectonics can explain the change quantitatively by restoring the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field recorded when rocks were formed. The time units for these changes are tens of millions of years to hundreds of millions of years, but plate tectonic is a way to estimate geological history. It can be assessed by extrapolating past knowledge considering the known geological events of radioactive waste repository. It is possible to derive a conservative value of the change of the geological environment in the time unit of disposal stability. The Korean Peninsula belongs to the edge of the Eurasian plate and is divided into Gyeonggi, Yeongnam Massif, Okcheon orogeny belt, and Gyeongsang Basin. To quantitatively determine their geological history, we collected paleomagnetic data using rocks from the Korea Peninsula (paleomagnetic database and papers). We attempted to carry out the apparent polar wander paths (APWPs) on the Korean Peninsula by collecting and sorting data. Since the Korean Peninsula is composed of multiple massifs, this APWP is expected to serve as a basis for explaining the local crustal rotation or brittle ductile deformation. Furthermore, by extrapolating the change pattern from the past to the present, it can contribute to the estimation of the future geological evolution.

A methodology is under development to restore and predict the long-term evolution of the natural barrier comprise the site of radioactive waste disposal for surface geological outcrop, tunnel face and drill core. Considering the condition that the radioactive waste repository should be located in the deep part, the drill core is an important subject that can identify deep geological properties that could not be confirmed near the surface. In this study, we investigated proper age dating methods to construct lithological model of the disposal site with regard to the long-term safety. Also, preliminary age dating locations were selected using the lithological distribution results by depth through geochemical and micro-structural analysis for the deep drill cores excavated around KURT. In the study area, the dikes presumed the Cretaceous were intruded by Jurassic granites. As for the granotoids, U-Pb age dating for zircon, which is resistant to deformation or metamorphism and has loss, is often used. In the case of the dikes, K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar age dating for the argon captured in the rocks after magmatism is often used. Through U-Pb zircon ages of KURT site granotoids, we expect to solve the clustering problem (granite and granodiorite), which is different from precious chemical analysis (XRF) results and TAS-diagrams. 40Ar/39Ar age dating to be used for the dikes is suitable for the perspective of lithological model of the disposal site. Because, it can compensate for accuracy problems such as sample heterogeneity in K-Ar age dating and is used for volcanic rocks. In the further study, we plan to determine the appropriate sampling locations by the selected age dating methods from the perspective of disposal in this study.

In this study, we searched for bioactive compounds from natural resources with a supercritical extract. We selected the extracts of Chrysanthemum zawadskii, Lufa cylindrica, Paeonia lactiflora, Gardenia jasminoides and Scutellaria baicalensis, as natural materials, and evaluated the effects of their skin barrier function. We found that these extracts increased the transactivation activity of the PPAR-responsive element (PPRE) and the anti-oxidation with different priorities, respectively. In addition, these extracts promoted the expression of proteins related to cornified envelope (CE) formation, such as involucrin. From these results, we suggest that natural materials from supercritical extracts will be pertinent candidates for the improvement of the epidermal permeability barrier function.