The number of pest detection in wooden pellets has increased since wooden pellets as biomass-solid refuse fuel (Bio-SRF) was allowed an import in Korea. In this study, we analyzed an insecticidal effect on pupal and adult stages of red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) and maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais) in wooden pellets using two fumigants, methyl bromide (MB) and phosphine (PH3), for establishing a guideline on fumigation. MB and PH3 both showed a dose-dependent manner in insect mortality after fumigation under 60% filing rate (FR) of wooded pellets in desiccator. In MB fumigation to T. castaneum, adults and pupae showed 100% mortality at 128 mg/L and 161 mg/L in 10°C at 24 h post treatment and pupae showed 100, 74, and 8% mortality against 99 mg/L of MB in 20, 40, and 40% FR, respectively. In PH3 fumigation, S. zeamais adults showed 92% mortality to 4 mg/L, meanwhile T. castaneum adults showed 100% mortality at 120 h post treatment.

The bulb mite (BM), Rhizoglyphus echinopus, is hard to control in the harvested onion and garlic. Methyl bromide (MeBr) fumigation is the only option to eradicate BM at present. However, MeBr causes phytotoxic damage (index 3) to onion and garlic and highly toxic to fumigators. To replace MeBr, we evaluated ethyl formate (EF) and phosphine gas (PH3) to BM at 5℃ which is current practical fumigation temperature. The >140 g·h m-3 of EF for 24 h could completely control BM and this CT (concentration × time) product was slightly (index 1) phytotoxic to onion and garlic. Fumigation of 2 g PH3 required >120 h exposure to kill 100% of BM without any pyhtotoxic damage. Further researches are being planned to shorten the exposure time with synergistic effect between EF and PH3.

Phosphine(PH3) is very effective fumigant and is widely used to control pests. Oxygen treatment was found to enhance phosphine toxicity and reduce fumigation time. We researched the insecticidal activities and synergistic effects of oxygen with phosphine(PH3) against on adult stage of 6 agricultural pests as Frankliniella occidentalis, F. intonsa, Pseudococcus comstocki, Planococcus citri, Myzus persicae and Tetranychus urticae. Adults F. occidentalis, F. intonsa, P. comstocki and P. citri was highly susceptible to PH3 at 2mg/L for 2h treatment. However, M. persicae and T. urticae were showed very low fumigation effects at 2mg/L for 2h treatment. These 2 pests were treated with PH3 to increase the times (16h and 20h). And we also researched the synergistic effects of PH3 under controlled atmospheres of 50% and 80% oxygen(O2). Increase of the time and atmospheric oxygen showed improving activities of the PH3 in the 2 agricultural pests. Therefore, PH3 is an effective fumigant against F. occidentalis, F. intonsa, P. comstocki and P. citri, and its synergistic effect with oxygen is effective to control M. persicae and T. urticae. PH3 with oxygen could be useful for managing the agricultural and quarantine pests.

화학적 소독처리기법을 개발하기 위해 에틸포메이트(EF), 포스핀(PH3)등의 약제를 이용하고 있다. 포스핀훈증제는 저곡해충의 방제 훈증제로 호주 둥 세계에서 널리 사용하고 있는 약제이지만, 국내에서는 현재 일부 수입 과실류의 특정 해충(깍지벌레류)만 소독처리기준을 설정하고 있어 처리기준 이외의 해충을 발견시, 오존층 파괴물질로 지정되어 규제가 예상되어지는 MB를 소독에 사용하고 있는 실정이다. 따라서, 여러 해충, 태별 온도에 따른 PH3 약제 감수성을 평가하여 소독처리기준에 적용하고자한다. 본 실험에서는 다중 농도의 PH3 훈증제(0.1~2 mg/L)를 사용하여, 각 공시충(복숭아혹진딧물, 귤가루깍지벌레, 점박이응애 등)에 대해 온도별 (5℃, 13℃, 20℃) 약효를 Probit 분석한 결과 5℃ 조건에서는 복숭아혹진딧물의 약충·성충의 감수성(LCT99)이 가장 높았다. 13℃ 조건에서는 점박이응애 알, 약·성충 및 복숭아혹진딧물 약·성충, 20℃ 조건에서 점박이응애 성충이 각각 높은 감수성을 보였다.

Many forest pests present a problem during wood quarantine. The effectiveness of phosphine (PH3), which is an altered form of MB, was examined in Monochamus saltuaris and M. alternatus. After 24 h, the larvae and the adults of both insects were susceptible to PH3 at 3 mg/L at 20°C. However, the larvae of both pests were rather than dead, seem to have been quiescent condition. PH3 showed increasing insecticidal activity in a time-dependent manner in the larva stage of both pests. We investigated the fumigants at all stages of M. saltuaris and M. alternatus, as well as the synergistic effects of PH3 in controlled atmospheres of 50% and 80% oxygen. The atmospheric oxidation of PH3 fumigation slightly increased the toxicity of the fumigant to larva stages in 125 L container at 4 mg/L. These results indicate that highly concentrated atmospheric oxidation of PH3 could be useful as a fumigant agent against M. saltuaris and M. alternatus.

Heating for disinfestation has been practiced of at the condition of 55-60°C for at least 48 hours in various facilities of stored and processed agricultural products. However, it has been required to reduce temperature and time due to the economic efficiency. To improve disinfestation efficiency of heating, we demonstrated whether combined treatments of heat with other agents exert synergistic for disinfestation. Heat treatments were combined with 1 ppm diatomaceous earth (DE), 10 ppm phosphine or 10% carbon dioxide against Plodia interpunctella, Sitophilus zeamais and Tribolium castaneum. Insects were treated single or multiple combinations of each component for 6 h at either 25°C or 40°C, then mortalities were monitored for 14 days post-treatments. Combined treatments greatly enhanced mortalities and shorten killing time of three species rather than single treatments. Particularly, heat treatments with 1 ppm DE and 10 ppm phosphine completely lethal within 3-6 h post-treatments, but heating with 10% CO2 was not much effective. Among three species, S. zeamais adults were more suscpetable to heat but both larvae and adults of T. castaneum was highly susceptible to phosphine. Our results clearly showed that combined treatment of DE or phosphine with mild heating (40°C) greatly improved mortalities of three major stored pest insects and provide advanced techniques for disinfestation of stored product pests.

Methyl Bromide (MB) has been regulated by montreal protocol due to ozone depletion since 1992, and there is a need to develop MB alternative fumigation methods. To find out the efficacies and tolerance in developmental stages of citrus mealybugs (Planococcus citri) which frequently infested in imported pineapples, phosphine(PH3) gas was tested in different exposure times (2~24 hr) and concentrations (0.1∼2g/m3) in small desiccators at 8℃. Based on Lethal 99% concentration × time products (LCTP 99%) of PH3 gas to target developmental insect, 2g/m3 PH3 was applied for 24 hr in 300 m3 fumigation facility, which was designed in well sealed and evacuation system (5 air exchange/min). We monitored PH3 gas in fumigation facility to confirm CTP and checked PH3 gas in atmospheres in air ventiliation process after fumigations to make quarantine guideline and protocol for worker safety as well as efficacy to target pest.

훈증제는 식물검역에 문제되는 해충을 방제하기 위해 사용되는데 특히, 목재류 검역에 있어서 많이 사용되고 있다. 그 중 phosphine(PH3)은 메틸브로마이드 (Methyl bromide)보다 해충에 대한 독성이 강하고 침투성 및 작업자의 안전성 측 면에서 우수한 것으로 알려져 저장류에 대한 검역용 훈증제로 널리 사용되고 있다. 포스핀은 상온에서 가장 효과적이라고 알려져 있으며 고온과 저온에서는 그 효과 가 떨어지는 것으로 알려져 있는데, 목재해충인 북방수염하늘소(Monochamus saltuaris)와 흰개미(Reticulitermes speratus)에 대한 PH3의 훈증활성을 온도조건 에 따라 살펴보고자 한다. 북방수염하늘소에서 포스핀의 훈증활성은 5°C보다20°C에서 더 높은 활성을 보였으나 알과 번데기 시기에서는 온도와 상관없이 포스핀의 활성이 거의 나타나 지 않는 것을 알 수 있었다. 또한, 흰개미에서 PH3의 훈증활성을 탐색한 결과 북방 수염하늘소와 마찬가지로 저온에서 활성이 감소하였는데 5°C보다 15°C 에서 8배 정도 높은 살충활성을 보였다. 그러나 5°C에서 산소(O2)의 함량을 높였을 때 훈증 효과가 증가하는 것을 알 수 있었다. 이는 포스핀이 기문을 통해 해충 체내로 들어 가 cytochrome C 산화효소를 저해함으로써 산소호흡을 억제시켜 해충을 질식시키 는데, 저온에서는 호흡량이 줄어들기 때문에 포스핀의 흡수량이 떨어졌다가 산소 포화도가 높아지면서 흡수하는 산소와 포스핀의 양 또한 증가하기 때문으로 생각 된다. 일반적으로 포스핀의 훈증활성은 상온에서 효과적이고 저온에서 감소하지 만 산소협력과 같은 방법을 사용한다면 효과적인 훈증활성을 얻을 수 있다고 판단 된다. 그러므로 목재류에 대한 훈증활성을 증가시킬 수 있는 방법에 대한 지속적인 연구가 필요할 것으로 생각된다.

Methyl bromide(MB) is a fumigant for quarantine and pre-shipment(QPS) that can eradicate target pests within short fumigation periods. However, MB, an ozone-depleting substance, is scheduled to be phased out in the second decade of this century. In contrast to MB alternatives for soil fumigation, there is no ideal alternative fumigant to MB for QPS of perishable commodities. It is important that all target insect pests are killed within a short fumigation time. The citrus mealybug(Planococcuscitri), a problematicquarantine pest from Korea, was exposed to ethyl formate and phosphine for different times and to different concentrations of EF(0.0∼33.4 mg/L) and PH3(0.25∼1.0 mg/L) in small desiccators. The eggs showed more tolerance than the nymphs and adults. To control the eggs, they were treated with a mixture of EF and PH3 for 2 and 4-hr. The egg stage showed 100% mortality with EF:PH3(25.1:0.25, 16.7:0.5, and 16.7:1.0 mg/L) at 4-hr. Treatment with a mixture of EF and PH3 for 4-hr at 8°C can control all stages of the citrus mealybug.

Aphids are common pests frequently found in imported and exported fruits and vegetables. Methyl bromide(MB), a Quarantine and Pre Shipment(QPS) fumigant, could offer eradication of aphids within short period. However, MB is limited in use because of poor gas evaporation at low temperature(<5℃) and there is phytotoxic effect or damage on quality in post-harvest vegetables and fruits even at >5℃. Two candidates of MB alternative, ethyl formate(EF) and phosphine(PH3), are used and being investig at edonvarious fruits and vegetables fumigation to replace MB. Aphids are known as quarantine pest that are hard to control when conduct short period fumigation with PH3 and low dosage of EF. In this paper, dose response assessment of EF and PH3 are presented for three different aphid pecies : cotton aphid(Aphisgossypii), green peach aphid(Myzuspersicae) and turnip aphid (Lipaphiserysimi). The LCt99% values of EF at room temp. and low temp. (5℃) were 4.42 and 4.45 g·h·m-3 for cotton aphid, 3.23 and 5.58 g·h·m-3 for turnip aphid, 3.23 and 5.58 g·h·m-3 for green peach aphid when 2-hours fumigation. PH3 showed 0% efficacy on all species when 2-hours fumigation.

Methyl bromide (MB), as a fumigant for Quarantine and Pre-Shipment(QPS) could offer eradication of target pests within shorter fumigation period and without phytotoxicity. Therefore, unlike MB alternatives for soil fumigation, there is no ideally MB alternative fumigant for QPS purpose, particularly for perishable commodities. It is critically important that within shorter fumigation time requires killing all target insect pests and without effect of quality and deliver treated fruit and vegetables to the final consumer. The citrus mealybug(Planococcuscitri), problem quarantine pest, was tested with different exposure times(2 and 4-hours) and concentrations(EF(0-200 g/m3) and PH3(10-50 g/m3)) in small desiccators for mixture tests. On sensitivity test with small desiccator, the egg stage showed 100% mortality with 200/25(EF/PH3) g/m3 and the nymph and adult stage showed 100% mortality with 10/10(EF/PH3) g/m3 on 2h. Also, the egg stage showed 100% mortality with 150/25(EF/PH3) g/m3on 4h.

The fumigant activity of phosphine (PH3) and ethyl formate (EF) was determined to all stage of Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) under high oxygen concentration (50% and 80%). Oxygenated PH3 and EF were tested at two different temperatures (20°C and 4°C) during 7 days. Two oxygenated fumigants were treated with LC10, 30 and 50 values of single fumigant against each stage of P. operculella. At 10% inhibition of hatchability concentration value, inhibition of hatchability of P. operculella eggs was shown 20.3% and 9.2% with 50% and 80% oxygenated PH3 at 20°C at 1 day after treatment, respectively. The fumigant activity of oxygenated PH3 was increased at all stage of P. operculella except eggs both 20°C and 4°C. However, oxygenated EF was determined low fumigant efficacy to hatchability of eggs and emergence rate of pupae. The insecticidal activities of P. operculella larvae and adults were slightly increased mortality rather than single EF. In this result suggests that oxygenated phosphine is effective method for managing P. operculella. But, oxygenated EF is not effective.

Wood boring insects are the major problem of many industries, such as hardwood brokers, importers, merchants, and manufacturers of furniture. Phosphine (PH3) is highly toxic to insects and is known to penetrate treated material. In this study, effectiveness of PH3 which is altered methyl bromide, was examined with Monochamus saltuaris, Platypus koryoensis, Cryphalus fulvus, and Xyleborus mutilatus. Fumigation to M. saltuaris, P. koryoensis, C. fulvus, and X. mutilatus was carried in a desiccator (12L) at 20℃ for 24 h. As a result, LC99 of PH3 to M. saltuaris, P. koryoensis, C. fulvus, and X. mutilatus was showed 0.455 mg L-1, 0.804 mg L-1, 0.243 mg L-1 and 0.046 mg L-1 in a desiccator(12L) at 20℃, respectively. M. saltuaris, P. koryoensis, C. fulvus, and X. mutilatus 100 % mortality was showed in a fumigation chamber (10 m3 and 100 m3) at normal temperature. In these results indicates that PH3 described could be useful for fumigant agent of 4 species wood pests.

The potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller), is considered one of the main causes of potato losses during harvesting and storage. The pest occur throughout the year and its larvae damage the leaves, twigs and tubers. In this study, we have investigated the effects of ethyl formate (EF) and phosphine (PH3) against P. operculella. Fumigation to all stage of P. operculella was carried in a desiccator system at 5℃ and 20℃ for 24 h. As a result, LC99 of PH3 to all stage of P. operculella was showed 1.953 mg L-1 (eggs), 0.100 mg L-1 (larvae), 4.884 mg L-1 (pupae) and 0.240 mg L-1 (adults) at 20℃, respectively. LC99 of EF to all stage of P. operculella was observed 19.808 mg L-1 (eggs), 6.783 mg L-1 (larvae), 141.476 mg L-1 (pupae) and 3.223 mg L-1 (adults), at 20℃ respectively. Larvae and adults showed the highest susceptibility to PH3 and EF at 20℃. LC99 of PH3 to all stage of P. operculella was showed > 1.5 mg L-1 (eggs), 0.187 mg L-1 (larvae), > 1.5 mg L-1 (pupae) and 0.386 mg L-1 (adults) at 5℃ , respectively. LC99 of EF to all stage of P. operculella was showed 27.479 mg L-1 (eggs), 9.580 mg L-1 (larvae), 55.759 mg L-1 (pupae) and 3.084 mg L-1 (adults) at 5℃, respectively. These results indicated that the fumigant efficiency of PH3 and EF is more effective with treated in room temperatures against termites.

The Japanese termite, Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe, is distributed in Korea widely. Although, termites are not currently a great problem in Korea, it might be increased commercial losses from imported timber. Phosphine (PH3) is very effective fumigant and is widely used to control pests. Oxygen treatment was found to enhance phosphine toxicity and reduce fumigation time against various life stage of insects. In this study, we determined efficacy of oxygenated phosphine fumigation for controlling R. speratus. Fumigation to adults of R. speratus was carried in a desiccator system at 20.9% (normal), 50% and 80% of oxygen concentration for 24 h. Fumigations under higher oxygen levels greatly increased phosphine toxicity to R. speratus. Mortality of termite was increased 15.0% and 16.2% in the 50.0% and 80.0% oxygen concentration with 0.25 mg L-1 phosphine at 5℃, respectively. 100% mortality was determined in 80.0% oxygen concentration with 0.5 mg L-1 phosphine at 5℃. Oxygenated phosphine fumigations have marked potential to improve insecticidal efficacy against R. speratus. These results merit further study as potential fumigant for control of wood destroying pests.

Since Montreal protocol in1989 designated MB(methyl bromide) as ozone depleting chemicals, IPPC(International Plant Protection Convention) has adopted replacing the MB with alternative chemical and reducing the rate of MB use in plant quarantine in 2008. Pineapples are one of the most frequently fumigated imported fruit with MB in Korea. However, there was no technically available replacement. Therefore, we evaluated phosphine(PH3) fumigation as alternative to MB in applying pineapples. In the preliminary test, PH3 gas in 12L desicators to calculate ranged to 0.1 from 2g/m3 was tested at 2 and 24hr exposure to target pest, citrus mealy bug(CMB, Planococcus citri). All different of stage of CMB was shown 100% mortality when 2g/m3 of PH3 applied for 24hrs at 8℃. To confirm studies designed in 0.5m3 fumigation chamber, all egg, nymph and adult stages of CMB was killed completely and there wasn’t any phytotoxic and quality damages on pineapples for 2 weeks post-fumigation periods at 8℃. In terms of commercial use, further commercial research will need to be carry out in cooperation with importers and fumigators.

For replacement of methyl bromide(MB) in Korea, VapormateTM, a gas formulation of ethyl formate(EF) with carbon dioxide, are firslty introduced in import bananas and VivakilTM, a gas formulation of phosphine(PH3) with carbon dioxide, are ready to commercial use in export cut flowers. Their applications are being extended for other import and export commodities. Ethyl formate have been shown to have effectiveness short exposure time(<4hr) but it has a limited application at low temperature for TSM(Two spotted spider mites) due to some phytotoxic to strawberry. Phosphine gas has demonstrated their efficacy to TSM at low temperature but only meets quarantine requirement when applying longer fumigation time(>24hr) to control CA(cotton aphids). We firstly evaluated two MB alternatives, EF and PH3, have enhansive effect within short exposure time(4hr) at low temperature(5℃) for controlling both TSM and CA without any injury to export strawberries.

2011년 기준 국내 절화의 해외 수출액은 약 70백만불 수준으로, 이 중 5~10%가 검역해충으로 인해 수입국 현지 소독처리 되고 있다. 수입국의 현지 검역관리를 위해 사용 중인 Methyl bromide 훈증제는 오존층 파괴 물질로 향후 사용 제한될 예정이며, 절화 처리 시 약해로 인한 절화 품질 손상과 상품가격 하락으로 이어져 수출법인이 막대한 피해를 입고 있어 수입국의 검역 리스크를 감소시키고 수출절화의 품질을 유지 시킬 수 있는 MB 대체 훈증기술이 요구되고 있다. 본 연구에서는 MB 대체 훈증제인 phosphine 가스를 이용하여 수출절화장미의 검역해충 방제 효과를 검정하고자 소규모 실증시험 및 절화 수출 전문업체인 농업회사법인(주)로즈피아와의 현장적용평가를 실시하였다. 소규모 실증시험에서 절화장미의 주요 해충인 점박이응애, 꽃노랑총채벌레에 대한 99.9% 방제 CTP는 각각 33.6g h/m3, 17.9g h/m3로 확인되었으며, 절화장미 4개 품종에 대한 약해가 없었다. 40ft 절화 수출용 저온컨테이너를 이용한 현장시험에서는 PH3 2% 가스훈증제(상표명 비바킬)를 4℃에서 100g/m3, 15시간 처리 시 점박이응애, 담배가루이, 꽃노랑총채벌레를 99.9% 이상 방제하였으며, 절화장미 14종에 대한 유통 중 약해가 없어 향후 수출절화장미 검역훈증제로서 상업화 가능할 것으로 기대된다.

Termites are a major problem for home and business owners around the world. Termites gnaw through wood and burrow under the foundations of buildings causing a great deal of damage to the structure of the building. Phosphine (PH3) is very effective fumigant and is widely used to control pests. PH3 rapidly penetrate through treated material, so it replaced many conventional fumigants for treatment of durable materials. In this study, we have investigated the effectiveness of PH3 fumigation on wood pests, Reticulitermes speratus kyushuensis. We evaluated two bioassay methods; wooden cube (10×10×10 cm) and insect breeding dish in comparison with effectiveness of PH3 penetrations into the timber block. Fumigation to adults of R. speratus was carried in a desiccator system for 24 h at 5 and 15℃. As a result, LC99 of PH3 to R. speratus in wooden cubes and insect breeding dish at 5℃ was 0.183 and 0.177 mg L-1, respectively. LC99 of PH3 in wooden cubes and insect breeding dish at 15℃ was 0.077 and 0.078 mg L-1, respectively. There were no significant differences between the two bioassay methods. Thess results indicate that PH3 described herein merit further study as potential fumigants for termite control.

Methyl bromide (MB) is a widely used fumigant in most of the countries for quarantine purpose. However, MB has been phasing out and under control in many countries because it is listed as an ozone-depleting substance under the Montreal Protocol. In this study, we have investigated the effectiveness of phosphine fumigation on wood pests for developing an MB alternatives. We evaluated two bioassay methods; wooden cube (10×10×10 cm) and normal fumigation procedures in comparison with effectiveness of phosphine (PH3) penetrations into the timber block. Fumigation to adults of Reticulitermes speratus was carried in a desiccator system for 24hr at 5 and 15 ℃. As a result, LC99 of PH3 to R. speratus in wooden cubes and insect breeding dish at 5℃ was 0.183 and 0.177 mg L-1, respectively. LC99 of PH3 in wooden cubes and insect breeding dish at 15℃ was 0.077 and 0.078 mg L-1, respectively.