The spring emergence of individual insect would be influenced by surface temperature during winter season. The oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, overwinter as a full-grown larva within spherical and compactly woven cocoons in the clefts of tree bark. It consume new shoots early and fruits later in the growing season. To estimate the spring emergence of G. molesta, we used the lower developmental threshold (8.14°C) and thermal constant (279.3) for overwintering G. molesta. The climate data were obtained from the web site of the Korea Meterological Administration(KMA) from 1975 to 2015 at 61 locations, respectively. The spring emergence of G. molesta was changed depending on ambient temperature of each year.

Climate change can affect major changes to the dynamics of individual insect. The increase of surface temperature would cause multivoltine species to increase the number of generations (i.e. voltinism) per year. Determining the voltinism was based on the climate data and biological parameters. The soybean bug, Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Alydidae) is one of major pests of soybean and has multi host plants. To estimate the voltinism of R. pedestris, the climate data were obtained from the web site of the Korea Meterological Administration(KMA) from 1966 or 1973 to 2015 at 77 locations, respectively. We used the lower developmental threshold (15.0°C) and thermal constant (312.5DD) for R. pedestris from egg to adult emergence. Degree-days were calculated by using simple cutoff method and cumulating degree-days (CDD) were obtained by summing calculated degree-days. The voltinism of R. pedestris was calculated by dividing CDD per specific period by the thermal constant requirement of R. pedestris development from egg to adult emergence. The number of generations varied depending on the season, with the lowest in February and the highest in August at each location. At least one generation per month would be possible from July to August. The average voltinism from 1966 to 2015 was highest at Seoguipo, and was followed by Daegu, Jejusi, Gwangju and Jeonju. The average voltinism from 1966 to 2015 was lowest at Ulreundo. The voltinism of R. pedestris observed the last 50 years was attributable to human activities at some locations.

The bird cherry-oat aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (Linnaeus) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a polyphagous species and worldwide distribution. We investigated the development periods and survivorship of R. padi nymph, and longevity and fecundity of R. padi adult. The study was conducted at six constant temperatures of 10.0, 15.0, 20.0, 25, 30.0, and 32.5°C, respectively. R. padi developed successfully from nymph to adult stage at all temperatures tested. Developmental rate of R. padi increased as temperature increased from 10.0 to 25.0°C and declined after then. The lower developmental threshold (LDT) and thermal constant (K) of R. padi nymph stage were estimated by linear regression. Higher temperature threshold (TH) and lower temperature threshold (TL) were calculated by two nonlinear functions. LDT and K of R. padi nymph stage were 5.61°C and 100.65DD. The temperature range of R. padi from TL to TH using empirical model (32.18) was wider than that from biophysiological model (27.08). Developmental completion of R. padi nymph stage was described using a two-parameter Weibull distribution model. The adult emergence frequency of R. padi over full range of constant temperatures was simulated using developmental rate functions and Weibull function. Daily egg production of R. padi in relation to adult age and temperature was estimated. Life table parameters were estimated by the jackknife method.

The longevity and fecundity of Naranga aenescens adult were investigated at temperatures of 15.0, 17.5, 20.0, 22.5, 25.0, 27.5, 30.0, and 32.5°C. Adult longevity was influenced by temperature but there was no temperature effect of fecundity. Longevity decreased with increasing temperature: it was highest at 15°C (22.2 ± 3.51 days) and lowest at 32.5°C (6.2 ± 0.32 days). Total fecundity was highest at 25°C (1693 eggs) and lowest at 15.0°C (1115 eggs). The oviposition period was longest at 20°C (8.8 ± 0.57 days) and shortest at 32.5°C (4.1 ± 0.21 days). The oviposition model presented in this study consisted of two reproductive components (total fecundity and age-specific oviposition rate) and a survival component (age-specific survival rate). The relationship between adult developmental rate and temperature was described by the Logan 6 model (r2=0.98, p<0.0001).The age-specific survival rate was explained by a exponential function (r2=0.98, p<0.00001). The age-specific cumulative oviposition rate was described by the two-parameter Weibull function (r2=0.95, p<0.00001). Temperature-dependent fecundity was estimated using the Briere-2 model (r2=0.91, p<0.0125). Daily egg production of N. aenescens in relation to adult age and temperature was estimated.

The rice green caterpillar Naranga aenescens Moore (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is one of important destructive insect pests to Poaceae including rice and corn. We investigated the development periods of N. aenescens egg, larva, pupa and total immature at eight constant temperatures of 15.0, 17.5, 20.0, 22.5, 25.0, 27.5, 30.0, and 32.5°C, respectively. N. aenescens developed successfully from egg to the adult stage at all temperatures tested except 15.0°C. Developmental rate of N. aenescens increased as temperature increased from 15.0 to 30.0°C but declined at 32.5°C except pupa stage. The lower developmental threshold (LDT) and thermal constant (K) was estimated by linear regression. Higher temperature threshold (TH) and lower temperature threshold (TL) were calculated by two nonlinear functions. LDT and K from egg to adult emergence were 12.01°C and 330.84DD. The temperature range of N. aenescens from TL to TH using performance model (24.03) was wider than that from SSI model (19.77). Developmental completion of N. aenescens was described using a two-parameter Weibull distribution model. The adult emergence frequency of N. aenescens over full range of constant temperatures was simulated using developmental rate functions and Weibull function.

The development and fitness of insects depend on the temperature to which they are exposed. The thermal windows are defined as the temperature range between the minimum and maximum rate of development for individual species. The intrinsic optimal temperature for development proposed by Ikemoto is one of important factors that determine the fitness of optimum life history. The temperature requirements for development of 65 species from five orders of insects was obtained from several journals. The minimum and maximum rate of development was estimated using empirical models. The temperature tolerance range of enzyme activation was estimated using Shape-Schoolfield-Ikemoto (SSI) model. The mean and range of intrinsic optimal temperature were 20.89°C and 15.7~27.7°C. The mean intrinsic optimal temperatures of Hemiptera and Endopterygota (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera) were 20.97°C and 20.71°C. The mean and range of thermal windows were 25.59°C and 16.69~36.13°C. The mean thermal windows of Hemiptera and Endopterygota were 25.53°C and 25.62°C. also not much different. Each species of insects had a limited temperature range for development. It is needed further studies for understanding the ecological, physiological and evolutionary response of insects to their thermal environments.

The growth, differentiation, development and fecundity of insects are influenced by temperature. The relationship between the development rate of insect and temperature has been studied since 1978 in Korea. The relationship between temperature and insect development was published in the Korean Journal of Applied Entomology (71 papers). The contents about Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Acarina and Neuroptera were published in 27, 16, 7, 6, 4, 5, and 2 papers of the journal. Approximately 33 functions from many international journals were published to figure out the relationship between temperature and development rate of insects. The functions have been developed based on two principal ways – simplified analytic method and biophysiological approach. The empirical models are based on the law of total effective temperature and heat summation. The biophysiological models are based on the equations of Arrhenius and Eying. The thermal constant and lower temperature threshold are estimated using linear functions. The minimal and maximal development rate are presented by nonlinear equations. The Sharpe-Schoolfield-Ikemoto (SSI) model showed the intrinsic optimal temperature. Cumulative proportion of development completion for each life stage of insects was analyzed using Weibull and sigmoid functions. We discussed the application and implication of linear and non-linear temperature dependent development models.

The small brown planthopper, Laodelphax striatellus, and the white backed planthopper, Sogatella furcifera, are important agricultural pests. L. striatellus could overwinter in Korean peninsula as nymph stage but S. furcifera could not. We investigated the survivorship and fecundity of two species for comparing population growth. The longevity and fecundity of two species were investigated at temperatures of 12.5, 15.0, 17.5, 20.0, 22.5, 25.0, 27.5, 30.0, 32.5, and 35.0℃. Adult longevity and fecundity of two species were significantly influenced by temperature. Longevities of L. striatellus were longer than those of S. furcifera at different temperatures. Specially, oviposition period of L. striatellus was twice as long as that of S. furcifera. Total fecundity per female of L. striatellus were also more than those of S. furcifera. The oviposition model of each species was consisted of three components - age specific survival rate, age specific oviposition rate and total fecundity per female. The relationship between adult developmental rate and temperatures was described by exponential function. The age specific survival rate and the age specific cumulative oviposition rate were explained by two parameter inversed-Weibull function and Weibull function. Temperature dependent fecundity was estimated using three parameter Gaussian function. Daily egg production of two species in relation to adult age and temperature was estimated.

최근 사과원에서 복숭아순나방붙이(Grapholita dimorpha)의 발생이 보고되었다. 복숭아순나방붙이는 이와 유사한 복숭아순나방(G.molesta)이 발생하는 또 다른 기주에서도 동시에 발생이 가능하다고 제기되었다. 본 연구는 국내 여러 지역의 배과원에서 복숭아순나방붙이의 발생이 있음을 보고한다. 복숭아순나방붙이의 종 동정은 형태적 특징과 분자마커를 이용하여 실시되었다. 이들 두 종의 공통된 성페로몬 주성분으로 상호 교차 포획이 이뤄질 수 있다. 복숭아순나방붙이 페로몬트랩에 복숭아순나방붙이와 복숭아순나방이 포획되고, 복숭아순나방 페로몬트랩에 복숭아순나방과 복숭아순나방붙이가 포획되었다. 복숭아순나방붙이 트랩에 이뤄진 교차 포획비율은 지역적으로 다른 배과원에서 상호 뚜렷한 차이가 나타났다. 더욱이 이 두 종의 발생 피크도 조사한 모든 야외 지역에서 시기적으로 뚜렷한 차이를 보였다. 이러한 결과는 배 과수원에서 두 종의 성페로몬 트랩으로 얻은 모니터링 자료는 각각 서로 다른 종의 포획이 혼재하며, 이는 해당종의 발생빈도와 발생밀도가 확대 해석될 수 있음을 본 연구 자료는 제시하고 있다.

경북의 자두 주요 생산지인 경산시와 의성군내 8개의 자두과원을 선정하여, 2010년과 2011년에 주요 심식나방류인 복숭아순나방, 복숭아순나방붙이, 복숭아심식나방의 발생상을 성페로몬 트랩을 이용하여 조사하였다. 또한 경산지역에서는 과수원 내부와 외부에서 포획된 개체수 자료를 이용하여 내외부 발생량을 비교하였다. 경산에서 복숭아순나방과 복숭아순나방붙이 발생은 의성보다 약 1주일 정도 빠르게 나타났다. 복숭아순나방은 3월 하순에 발생을 시작하여, 4월 하순 최성기를 이루었으며, 이후 세대는 6월 중순, 7월 중순, 8월 중순에 성충 최성기를 보였다. 반면 복숭아심식나방은 두 지역간의 차이가 없었으며, 6월 상순에 발생을 시작하여 9월 중순까지 2-3회의 발생 최성기를 보였다. 복숭아심식나방의 경우 2010년은 전형적인 2회 최성기를 보였으나 2011년에는 3회 최성기를 보였다. 연간 복숭아순나방, 복숭아순나방붙이, 복숭아심식나방의 발생량비는 경산지역에서 63-47:16-35:20-18%였고, 의성지역은 51-46:18-13:31-36%로 나타났다. 복숭아순나방과 복숭아순나방붙이의 경우 과수원 내부와 외부에서 포획량의 차이는 없었다.

Insects in temperate climate zones are challenged to endure harsh temperature regimes and the absence of food resources during winter. Many insects overwinter in diapause at different sites. The overwintering sites differ according to the insect species. The study was conducted to investigate the overwintering sites between the two orchard systems for the Grapholita molesta larvae. Overwintering sites of Grapholita molesta were found different between apple grafting systems. More individuals favored the side branches and main bottom trunk as overwintering sites in big tree system (M26) and in dwarf grafting high density system (M9) respectively. There was no significant different between M9 and M26 cultivars in the relative proportion of larvae. However, significant differences were found in the interaction between the overwintering sites and the two M9 and M26 cultivar orchard systems. The natural mortality from the field was estimated as 22.1% and 18.3% from dwarfing, high density orchards and the big tree orchard systems respectively. This study provides valuable information and guidelines to understand the major overwintering sites within different orchard systems for scheduling management actions against spring adult moths population emergence.

Coevolution is a large part of evolution and the patterns of adaptation and speciation may be modified by coevolution processes. The arms races between insects and plants in natural system are one of coevolutionary processes and the mechanistic and predictive processes of the system may be helpful to understand the interaction between host plants and herbivores in agricultural systems. Furthermore, human activities may give direct and/or indirect effects on ecological and evolutionary processes in natural and agricultural ecosystems and have selection power as well as natural selection. Recent studies showed that the fundamental principles of evolution – variation (genetic difference, phenotypic plasticity, epigenetic change, and nongenetic inheritance), selection (directional or fluctuating), connectivity and eco-evolutionary dynamics – are important to understand the interplay between insects and plants. The coevolutionary processes between plants and herbivores were also interpreted by the geographic mosaic theory. The evolutionary effects on ecological dynamics in natural ecosystems were classified four categories: trophic specialization, evolution of defense, interaction outcome and loss of traits in absent of interaction. It was reviewed that it is necessary to consider the ecological response in evolutionary studies as well as evolutionary variation in ecological researches.

Papilio xuthus is known as the Asian swallowtail, Chinese yellow swallowtail, or as the Xuthus swallowtail. It overwinters in pupae stage. The study was conducted to investigate the temperature effect on adult emergence of overwintering P. xuthus pupae at four different constant temperatures (15, 20, 25 and 30°C) with photoperiod 10:14(L:D). The lower developmental thresholds of female, male and both sexes combined were 9.71, 11.03, and 10.49°C, respectively. Developmental period of overwintering pupae to adults decreased with increasing temperature between 15 and 30°C. Degree-days for adult emergence to female, male and both sexes combined were 227.27, 175.44, and 200.80DD, respectively. The relationship between the developmental rate and temperature was fitted by linear and five nonlinear developmental rate models (Logan 6, Lactin 1, 2 and Briere 1, 2). The variation of overwintering pupae development was described by the two-parameter Weibull distribution model. The adult emergence of overwintering P. xuthus pupae in spring can be explained and predicted by using developmental rate models and developmental distribution model. The effect of climate change on phenology and distribution of P. xuthus may be presented by the model.

Papilio macilentus is the longest tail butterfly of Papilionidae found in Japan, China and Korea and has distinctive morphological differences between male and female. P .macilentus feeds on Zanthoxylum schinifolium and has three generations per year. The lower developmental threshold and thermal constant for adult emergence of P. macilentus overwintering pupae were estimated at four different constant temperatures (15, 20, 25 and 30°C) with photoperiod 10:14 (L:D). The lower developmental threshold of both sexes combined was 7.95°C. The development of overwintering pupae decreased with increasing temperature between 15 and 30°C. Thermal constant of both sexes combined was 251.26DD. The relationship between the developmental rate and temperature was fitted by linear and five nonlinear developmental rate models (Logan 6, Lactin 1, 2 and Briere 1, 2). The development of overwintering P. macilentus pupae was described by the two-parameter Weibull distribution model. The temperature-dependent adult emergence model of P. macilentus developed in this study could be used to predict the full-cycle phenology model of P. macilentus and applied to understand the effects of climate change on the emergence distribution of overwintering pupae.

Grapholita dimorpha is a new pest of apple, pear and plum in Japan and Korea as well. Although G. dimorpha was reported as a multi-voltine insect with four generations per year, the phenology is not fully known in Korea. We present a model to predict the spring occurrence of G. dimorpha adults based on the relationship between the cumulative proportion of G. dimorpha adult catches and accumulated degree-days. Five different distribution models were applied and the selection was made based on the statistical information criteria (AICC and BIC). Model validation was performed with the field data of the male moth catches in sex pheromone-baited traps of two apple production regions (Chungju and Geochang) of Korea in 2011. Model predictions of the dates for the cumulative 50% male moth catches were within five days variation. Because G. dimorpha has a feeding habit of boring inside the fruit the management practice of G. dimorpha should apply on egg and neonate larval stage. The management strategy of G. dimorpha in spring might be improved by the model.

The study was conducted to develop the full seasonal phenology model of G. molesta in pear orchard. G. molesta is a multi-voltine insect with four to five generations per year depending on temperature, food resources and geographic location. For precise model construction, information on temperature-dependent development and the distribution of developmental completion of overwinteirng and summer G. molesta population was used. The performance of model was based on single cohort population of G. molesta. The validation of model system was performed with the male moth catches in sex pheromone-baited traps of pear orchards in four pear production regions (Anseong, Icheon, Naju and Ulju), three apple production regions (Andong, Chungju and Geochang), and four plum orchards (Uiseong) of Korea in 2010 and 2011, respectively. The observed phenology of seasonal population of G. molesta was explained by our model system. The predicted dates for the cumulative 50% male moth catches per each generation were within seven days variation per each generation. The precise predictive model of G. molesta adult occurrence could help decision making and enhancing control efficacy.

Many insects overwinter in diapause in the temperate region. Winter diapause often terminates far yearly than our thought, eg. Many in December. After diapause termination, insect becomes in quiescence. The lower developmental threshold of overwintering Oriental fruit moth larvae is in the range of 7.5-8.4℃ depending on the geographic location. We have determined the developmental period of overwintering OFM larvae from the time series interval collection. Collections were made from mid Jan to late March at 10d interval. Collected larvae were held in a cold chamber at 6°C for 5 days, and then subjected at 20°C with 75% R.H., 16:8(L:D).hr. The developmental period from overwintering cocooned larvae to adults was longest in mid. January collections, became shorter after 31 Jan. collection, then gradually decreased until mid March. Cocooned larvae developmental period became shorter after 31 Jan. while that of pupae became shorter after 20 Feb. During this study, female ratio was not different to 0.5. Mortality of winter collected larvae to adults was 45% including 30% parasitism. Partial explanation of the insect development under the lower developmental threshold was discussed; limitation of linear model estimation, temperature data quality and physiological metabolism after diapause termination. From January to February, daily average temperature fluctuated but under the lower developmental threshold. However, daily maximum temperature became noticeably higher than the lower developmental threshold after 20 Jan. However, this result indicates that after late Jan, physiological state of OFM is altered.

Pollinating insects function significantly in structuring ecosystem as well as agricultural production. Among the variety of pollinators, Osmia cornifrons is one of the important pollinators in apple orchards. Unlike honey bees, O. cornifrons is able to pollinate at low temperature that facilitates its wide commercial use. The female O. cornifrons in nature lay their eggs to the interior of the bamboo reeds where they spend their larval and pupal stage throughout the summer and during fall they overwinter as adult. The adult bee emerges from the overwintering cocoon in the spring seasons. Since the complete synchrony with flowering period is critical, farmers collect and store the dormant state of O. cornifors in cold storage and expose them in due time to outdoor temperatures for their emergence, pollination activity can be performed. However, information on biological and ecological requirements for the emergence of overwintering adults are rarely reported. We carried out the experiments on temperature dependent adult emergence and constructed the emergence model based on developmental rate and distribution. Parameters were estimated from linear model and weibu

This study was conducted to examine the ability of the predacious mite G. occidentalis to limit population density of T. urticae infesting roses in the greenhouse, Washington state university, Pullman, U.S.A. Population fluctuations of T. urticae, G. occidentalis, and Macrosiphum euphorbiae were assessed for over two years on greenhouse roses through time series data. During the first half of experiment a stratified random sampling was performed (from May 2000 to May 2001) and the presence/absence and randomized sampling method was utilized during second half (from June 2001 to September 2002). Populations of T. urticae and G. occidentalis were estimated by R-functions or discrete prey-predator equations. During 121 weeks there were six population fluctuations of T. urticae, G. occidentalis and M. euphorbiae. The variation of G .occidentalis was closely associated with that of T. urticae but G. occidentalis did not overexploit T.urticae. The predicted populations of both mites were explained by above equations. M. euphorbiae and T. urticae might be compete for limited resource in the greenhouse rose and the movement of G. occidentalis was inhibited by the honeydew of M. euphorbiae. Therefore, M. euphorbiae showed negative relationship with T. urticae and G. occidentalis from the results of non-linear regression analysis. Although the relationship between T. urticae and G. occidentalis was negative it was unlikely to present complete biological control of T. urticae on greenhouse roses. It might be necessary an integrated management strategy to control T. urticae in bent-cane greenhouse roses.

This study was conducted to investigate the insecticidal capacity of several recombinant baculoviruses to P. xylostella and S. exigua larvae. NeuroBactrus was constructed as follows: the cry1-5 of Bacillus thuringiensis 2385-1 was inserted into Autographa californica multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) genome by fusion of polyhedrin-cry1-5-polyhedrin under the control of polyhedrin gene promoter, and insect-specific neurotoxin from the scorpion Androctonus australis (AaIT) under the control of early promoter from Cotesia plutellae bracovirus was introduced by fusion of orf603 partial fragment in the opposite direction of polyhedrin gene, respectively. Other recombinant baculoviruses derived from the NeuroBactrus - NBt-DelA (deleted AaIT), NBt-Del5 (deleted cry1-5), and NBt-DelA5 (deleted AaIT and cry 1-5) - were manufactured in serial passages in vitro. The data were analyzed by SPSS. The value of LC50 was lower when P. xylostella larvae fed on cabbage coated with NeuroBactrus (4068.4) than when it fed on cabbage coated with AcMNPV (4.5x106). Survival time (ST50) of P. xylostella larvae (2.54days) was shorter when it fed on cabbage coated with NeuroBactrus than when it fed on cabbage coated with other recombinant baculoviruses (7.54days, 7.68days, and 8.26days) and AcMNPV (9.67days). S. exigua larvae presented the same results.