Background : Recently, the shortage of first planted ginseng field has increased direct seeding cultivation in paddy. Therefore, the demand for the development of ginseng varieties suitable for direct seeding cultivation in paddy has increased. So the aim of this study was selection ginseng varieties and germplasms suitable for direct seeding cultivation in paddy. Methods and Results : We used 13 varieties and 191 lines of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) in this study. Ginseng Seeds were harvested at the end of July 2013, sown in mid-November, and were grown for four years in paddy. In 2017, the survey was conducted on 27 items of growth characteristics in accordance with the standards for survey of ginseng variety, and the degree of diseases and physiological disorders. Among ginseng varieties, the growth of Gopoong, Sunwon and Gwumjin were excellent. However, the incidence of physiological disorder was low in Gumpoong and Geumsun. Among the genetic sources, the growth of 7 ginseng lines, such as G04092, G04098, M05015, G07053, G10069 and G10093, were excellent. However, the incidence of physiological disorder was low in 10 lines of ginseng, such as G04020, G04061, G04081, G04092, G05054, G07052, G07053, G10069 and G10093. Conclusion : This result suggests that 5 varieties and 10 lines of ginseng showed outstanding growths in paddy. In the future, we will review the characteristics of root and the content of ginsenosides of ginseng variety and elite lines.

Background : The insufficient soil moisture due to spring drought causes the germination rate of ginseng seeds to be remarkably lowered and the low seeding depth causes the roots not to be settled but remain in the surface soil containing moisture, resulting in the ill-shaped ginseng. Especially, in the case of paddy soil, the soil environment is often over-humidified or over-dried, resulting in high rate of occurrence of physiological disorders such as rough skin, yellow-colored root and red-colored root, etc. compared to the upland soil, requiring more care in managing the soil. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim to investigate the effects of stamping treatment on the direct seeding cultivation in the paddy soil and to investigate the survival and growth characteristics according to the seeding method. Methods and Results : We investigated the effects of stamping on the emergency rate and growth by using rollers (15, 20, 25, 30 ㎏), and also investigated the growth characteristics according to the direct sowing methods (broadcast planting, motorized seeder, semi-automatic seeder, manual seeder, hoop-type seeder). In the emergency rate of 1-year-old ginseng group directly sowing and treated with trampling, the group treated with 25 ㎏ & 30 ㎏ showed the highest emergency rate & growth, and above-ground & underground parts growth of 1-year-old ginseng by sowing method, there was no significant difference between sowing methods, the emergency rate of motorized seeder and semi-automatic seeder was high. Conclusion : In the paddy soils, the 25 – 30 ㎏ stamping after direct seeding showed superior above-ground growth and emergency rate, and there was no significant difference in growth, but motorized seeder and semi-automatic seeder had a higher rate of emergency in 1-year-old ginseng.

Background: Crop rotation plays an important role in improving soil chemical properties, minimizing the presence of disease pathogens, and assists in neutralizing autotoxic effects associated with allelochemicals. Methods and Results: Five rotation crops of sudan grass, soybean, peanut, sweet potato, and perilla were cultivated for one year with an aim to reduce yield losses caused by repeated cropping of ginseng. In 2-year-old ginseng grown in the same soil as a previous ginseng crop, stem length and leaf area were reduced by 30%, and root weight per plant was reduced by 56%. Crop rotation resulted in a significant decrease in electrical conductivity, NO3, and P2O5 content of the soil, whereas organic matter, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, and Zn content remained-unchanged. Soil K content was increased following crop rotation with sudan grass and peanut only. Rotation with all alternate crops increased subsequent ginseng aerial plant biomass, whereas root weight per plant significantly increased following crop rotation with perilla only. A significant positive correlation was observed between root rot ration and soil K content, and a significant negative correlation was observed between ginseng root yield and the abundance of actinomycetes. Crop rotation affected the soil microbial community by increasing gram negative microbes, the ratio of aerobic microbes, and total microbial biomass whereas decreases were observed in actinomycetes and the ration of saturated fatty acids. Conclusions: In soil exhibiting crop failure following replanting, crop rotation for one year promoted both soil microbial activity and subsequent ginseng aerial plant biomass, but did not ameliorate the occurrence of root rot disease.

Background : Ginseng is mainly grown as a break crop in paddy fields after rice has been cultured for approximately 4 - 5 years, because it reduces the negative effects of continuous rice cropping. However, physiological disorders, such as leaf discoloration, occur in ginseng grown in paddy fields with poor drainage and excessive levels of inorganic components. Methods and Results : This study investigated the effect of ridge height on the growth characteristics and yield of 6 year old Panax ginseng. Ridge height was varied by making 20, 30, and 40 ㎝ high ridges in a pooly drained paddy field. Soil moisture content decreased, while electrical conductivity (EC) as the ridge height increased. The NO3, K, Ca, Mg, and Na levels also rose as ridge height increased, but organic matter and P2O4 levels did not. The leaf discoloration ratio rose as the ridge height increased, and root yield reached a peak when the ridge height was 30 ㎝. Conclusion : A ridge height of 30 ㎝ in poorly drained paddy field improved ginseng growth by reducing leaf discoloration and increasing root survival, owing to more suitable soil moisture and EC levels.

Physiological disorders such as symptoms in leaf colored with brown spots are so many occurred in ginseng garden cultivated with paddy soil. This study was carried out to inhibit the symptoms of brown-colored leaf in 3-year-old ginseng by fertilizing calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] of 100 ~ 400 ㎏ per 10a on paddy soil before transplant of seedling. Soil pH was rapidly increased, while Fe was decreased in soil by the increase of application level of calcium hydroxide. Soil pH was increased from 4.53 to 6.18 when calcium hydroxide was fertilized at level of 100kg per 10a. The content of Fe in ginseng leaf was decreased more than the control by fertilizing calcium hydroxide in soil. Ratio of brown-colored leaf and plant height and leaf area were decreased by the increase of calcium hydroxide. Ratio of survived root and yield of root showed the peak at the application level of 100 ㎏ per 10a, and both of them were gradually decreased by the increase of calcium hydroxide. The decrease of missing plant rate above the application level of 200 ㎏ per 10a had a negative effect on the decrease of yield of root.

The average and maximum temperature were 29.5℃ and 33.2℃ at 2:00 p.m. respectively, in the plastic-filmhouse covered with shade net, and both of temperature were lower 0.6℃ and 1.3℃ than those of conventional shade. Lighttransmittance was 14% in the plastic-film house, while 9.9% in conventional shade during growing season from May toOctober. Withering time of aboveground part was on October 3rd in conventional shade with 60% of withering leaf, while itwas on November 10th with 3.7% of withering leaf in the plastic-film house, about 40 days longer survival. The main diseaseincidence were 15% of anthracnose, 17% of leaf spot, 5% of phytophthora blight and 3% of gray mold in the conventionalshade, while 0~0.1% disease incidence and 95% of emergence rate in the plastic-film house. The growth in the above-ground and underground part of ginseng was totally better, particularly characteristics affecting yield such as root length,main root length and diameter in the plastic-film house . The fresh weight was increased by 128% compared to the conven-tional shade and harvested roots per 3.3㎡ were 36 roots in the conventional shade and 58 roots in the plastic-film house andfuthermore yield per 3.3㎡ was increased by 216% compared to the conventional shade. As covering materials, the ricestraw in the plastic-film house was excellent. The ginsenoside contents affecting the quality of ginseng were higher in theplastic-film house indicating 0.333% of Rg1, 0.672% of Rb1, 0.730% of Rc and rate of red rusty root was less than4.0~6.1%. Above the results, the quality of ginseng grown in the plastic-film house covered with shade net was improvedthan that of the conventional shade.

This study was carried out to investigate the difference of the content of soil chemical components and growthcharacteristics in six years old ginseng affected by application of decomposing plant residues in paddy-converted field. Theresults show that aerial parts of ginseng are no difference between press cake (PC) 200㎏/10a and control but subterraneanparts of ginseng PC 200㎏/10a, especially quantity related root fresh weight and tap root diameter, are statically about 1.6times heavier and about 1.2 times thicker than the ginseng control. Furthermore, the survival rate of PC 200㎏/10a is67.1% rise significantly compare with the control 50.7%. But compared with the PC 200㎏/10a and the PC 400㎏/10a,ginseng root growth and survival rate of PC 400㎏/10a get worse and that increase physiological disorder occurrence ratethan PC 200㎏/10a. Even though there are no significant differences between the ginseng of decomposing plant residuesexcept press cake treatment and the ginseng of control in growth characteristics, it does tend to increase the survival rateand decrease the physiological disorder occurrence rate in most fertilizer treatment except for RSC 2ton/10a, RSC 4ton/10a and RH 4kL/10a. Noted that EC is highly increased and exceeded 1.7ds/m in RSC 2ton/10a, RSC 4ton/10a and RH4kL/10a. It would be caused physiological disorder in many ways and affected ginseng growth characteristics, survival rate.

This study was carried out to investigate the difference of the content of soil chemical components and growth characteristics in five years old ginseng affected by application of manure in paddy-converted field. As all livestock manure regardless of kinds increased along with the whole soil chemical component, including the pH and EC in 2008. Change in the EC of control plot was slightly increased but not exceeded 1 ds/m over the years. However, the changes in the EC of livestock manure regardless of kinds and amounts were highly increased and irregularly exceeded 1.5 ds/m in 2012. The 5 years old ginseng root fresh weight, treatment of fertilizing pig manure compost 4 ton per 10 areas (PMC 4t on/10a) and fowl manure compost 4 ton per 10 areas (FMC 4 ton/10a), were superior to the others. But there were no difference between PMC 4 ton/10a, FMC 4 ton/10a and control. The standing crop rate 39.6%, treatment of fertilizing cattle manure compost 4 ton per 10 areas (CMC 4 ton/10a), was best in all livestock manure. However that was relatively lower than control. Physiological disorder occurrence rates of livestock manure related with leaf and root of ginseng were also higher than that of control. If excessively using non-decomposed livestock manure, It would be caused physiological disorder in many ways. It is a big problem to be producing the quality ginseng. More research is needed to find out the economic and effective fertilizer.

This study was carried out to investigate the cause of leaf discoloration occurring frequently in paddy cultivation. Chemical property of soil and inorganic nutrient component of leaf were analyzed on abnormal fields of 7 regions where leaf discoloration occurred severely and normal fields of 7 regions among ginseng garden. The pH of abnormal fields was strong acidic condition (pH 5.51) compare to normal fields of slightly acid condition (pH 6.42). Calcium and magnesium content in abnormal fields were lower distinctly than that of normal fields, while EC, organic matter, phosphate, and potassium content showed not distinct difference between abnormal and normal fields. Whereas calcium and magnesium content were distinctly high in normal fields, both of potassium and iron content of ginseng leaf were distinctly high in abnormal fields. In particular, iron content of abnormal fields was more 1.94 times in soil, and 3.03 times in leaf than that of normal fields. In soil chemical property, there were significant negative correlation between leaf discoloration ratio and soil pH, and there were also significant positive correlation between leaf discoloration ratio and iron content. In ginseng leaf, there were highly significant negative correlation between leaf discoloration ratio and calcium content, and there were also highly significant positive correlation between leaf discoloration ratio and iron content.

This study was carried out to select optimal shade materials among four-layered polyethylene (PE) net (FLPN), aluminium-coated PE sheet (APSS), and blue PE sheet (BPSS) in condition of paddy field cultivated 6-year-old ginseng. The order of light-penetrated ratio and air temperature by shade materials was BPSS 〉 APSS 〉 FLPN. Light-penetrated ratio of BPSS before two fold shade was more 3 times and 2 times than that of FLPN and APSS, respectively. Air temperature of BPSS was also higher 1.6℃ and 1.4℃ than that of FLPN and APSS, respectively. BPSS showed good cultural environment because all of light-penetrated ratio and air temperature were become higher in spring and fall season but lower in summer season by additional shade with two-layered PE net. Survived-leaf ratio was highest in BPSS and lowest in FLPN causing a little water leak on a rainy day. Rusty-root ratio was also highest in FLPN because soil moisture content was increased by water leak. The order of root yield was BPSS 〉 APSS 〉 FLPN, and the cause of highest yield in BPSS was higher light-penetrated ratio during spring and fall season, higher survived-leaf ratio, and lower rusty-root ratio than that of APSS and FLPN. BPSS showed highest total ginsenoside content because of high light-penetrated ratio, blue light effect, and the difference in dry matter partitioning ratio such as low taproot ratio, and high lateral root ratio.

To develop the practical cultivation for paddy field, we investigated the properties of paddy soil, growth characteristics and ginsenoside content of 6-year-old ginseng, Cheonpung variety between poor drainage class (PDC) and imperfect drainage class (IDC). Groundwater level in PDC showed monthly small changes of 20~30 cm, while IDC showed monthly great changes of 28~71 cm depending on rainfall. Soil moisture content in PDC and IDC was 17.2%, 22.5%, respectively. Air temperature in IDC was lower than 0.3℃, while soil temperature was higher than 0.8℃ compare to PDC, respectively. Main soil color of PDC was grayish olive, while IDC was brownish olive. PDC showed yellowish mottles only at underground of 20~40 cm, while IDC showed that at underground of 30~90 cm. IDC showed lower pH, EC, potassium, calcium and magnesium content, but higher organic matter, phosphate, and iron content than that of PDC, respectively. All of EC, organic matter, potassium, calcium, and magnesium content were decreased, but iron content was increased at the subsoil layers of PDC. All of EC, organic matter, phosphorus, and potassium content were decreased, but calcium and magnesium content were increased at the subsoil layers of IDC. Root yield in IDC was more increased by 33% than that of PDC. The moisture content and rusty ratio of ginseng root in IDC were lower than that of PDC. Ginsenoside content in IDC was higher than that of PDC because the ratio of lateral and fine root showing relatively high content of ginsenoside was higher in IDC than that of PDC.

When ginseng seedlings are cultured in paddy fields, quality degradation and yield reduction are induced by severe plant loss with chlorosis on leaves occurred physiological disorder by excessive salt and poor drainage, rusty-root occurrence, and root rot etc. Accordingly, in order to solve these problems, this study was performed to investigate the treatment method, concentrations and time of activated ion calcium as environment-friendly agricultural materials. Activated ion calcium is an enriched and purified water-soluble mineral calcium component for absorbing quickly into plant as a highly functional calcium and it is an alkaline calcium of 37% (370 ml/1 l) concentration with pH 13. Treatment method was that ginseng seeds were sown after removing water in the shade after seed immersion for 1 minute with active ion calcium of 20-fold diluted solution, and then irrigated 4l per 3.3 m2 with 200-fold, 400-fold, and 600-fold diluted solution before emergence on late March, and supplied 1 time on leaves with 500-fold diluted solution in June and July respectively. The disease rate by treatment of activated ion calcium was that on the treatment of soil irrigated with 200-fold diluted solution compared to non-treated soil, damping-off was 33%, anthracnose was 100% reduced and the occurrence rate of rusty-root was 30% reduced. In addition, when active ion calcium of 200-fold diluted solution were soil irrigated, first and second grade ginseng were respectively 26% and 22% produced more, compared with control.

This study was conducted to examine major growth responses, the production and partitioning of dry matter on different growth stages, and yields and to select the optimal shading material in both quality and productivity of ginseng. Two cultivars of ginseng, Cheonpoong and Geumpoong, were cultivated in the paddy soil with three different shading materials; three-layered blue and one-layered black polyethylene (TBP), blue polyethylene sheet (BPS), and aluminium-coated polyethylene sheet (APS). Plant heights were linearly increased until June 24 and then maintained with showing higher height in Cheonpoong than that in Geumpoong cultivar. Root lengths were gradually increased until October 16. They were longer in Cheonpoong than that in Geumpoong cultivar, showing slightly longer with APS compared to TBP and BPS. The ability of producing dry matter of leaves was much higher from April to June compared to those of other growth periods, whereas its ability of root was concentrated from the end of June to the end of August. Among the shading materials, the ability of producing dry matter of shoot was higher with TBP than those with BPS and APS, while its ability of root was not appeared certain tendency unlike the shoot. The yield of ginseng roots was the highest with TBP among three shading materials and it was higher in Cheonpoong than that of Geumpoong cultivar. The shading materials which affect the light intensity and the temperature would be considered as an important factor to get better quality and productivity of Korean ginseng.