마비성 패류독소 중독증(paralytic shellfish poisoning; PSP)은 삭시톡신과 그 유사체로 오염된 패류를 섭취했을 때 발생하며, 저림, 구토 등의 증상에서부터 근육 마비와 심각한 경우 호흡 마비로 이어져 사망에 이를 수 있다. 독 성등가계수(toxic equivalency factors; TEFs)는 다양한 마 비성 패류독소의 독성을 표준화하여 위험성을 평가하는 데 사용된다. 마비성 패류독소를 검출하기 위해 사용되던 마우스 생체 실험(mouse bioassay; MBA)에 대한 윤리적 문제가 제기되면서 고성능액체크로마토그래피와 같은 기 기 분석법으로의 전환이 시도되고 있지만, 유사체들의 적절 한 TEF를 설정하기 위해서는 여전히 동물 모델을 통한 생 체 내 독성 데이터가 필수적이다. 본 연구에서는 동물 수를 줄이면서도 신뢰할 수 있는 경구투여 독성 결과를 얻기 위 해 삼단계 반응표면-경로 (three-level RSP) 설계를 사용했다. 인증 표준 물질을 이용하여 각 독소의 초기 용량과 조정 계 수를 결정하고 시험을 진행했으며, STX.2HCl, NeoSTX, dcSTX, GTX1&4, GTX2&3, dcGTX2&3의 반수치사량 (및 TEF) 값은 각각 451.3 (1.00), 306.5 (1.47), 860.9 (0.52), 644.5 (0.70), 915.3 (0.49), 2409.3 (0.19)로 나타났다. 도출된 TEF 값은 2016년 WHO에서 권고한 TEF 값뿐만아니라, 이 전에 보고된 경구 투여 반수치사량을 기반으로 한 TEF 값 과 강한 상관관계를 보였다. 본 연구는 마비성 패류독소 뿐 만 아니라 신규 미관리 해양생물독소에 대해 적절한 TEF를 설정하는 데 있어 삼단계 반응표면경로 설계를 윤리적 우 려와 신뢰할 수 있는 독성 데이터의 필요성 사이에서 효과 적으로 균형을 맞출 수 있는 방법으로 제안한다.

이 연구는 대학생의 생활패턴과 구강건강 관련성을 분석하여 생활패턴 별 구강보건교육안을 기획하는데 필요한 기초자료를 제공하고자 하였다. 2024년 5월 한 달 동안 K 대학교 재학 중인 학생 121명의 온라인 설문 조사 자료를 SPSS 프로그램으로 분석한 결과는 다음과 같다. 생활패턴 은 저녁형이 많았고 치과 정기검진자는 여자가 많았다. 생활패턴별 일상 생활구강건강영향지수 분석결과 구강건조감은 저녁형과 스트레스 상위집 단이 유의하게 높게 나타났다. 생활패턴, 스트레스, 구강건조감, 악관절 장애 및 OIDP 상관성 분석 결과 생활패턴은 구강건조감과 양의 상관관계 (.284, p <0.01), 스트레스는 구강건조감과 양의 상관관계(.316, p <0.01), 구강건조감은 OIDP와 양의 상관성(.281, p <0.01)이 있는 것으로 나타났 다. 생활패턴별 스트레스 경험 수준과 구강 관리습관, 구강증상 경험, 일 상생활구강건강영향지수는 차이가 있어 구강보건교육시 이를 반영하여 교육한다면 개인 특성에 따른 구강건강증진을 도모할 수 있을 것으로 사 료된다.

Periodontal disease (PD) is strongly linked to increased risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC); however, the specific mechanism through which the development of PD and OSCC is simultaneously promoted remains unclear. This study explored the impact of periodontal pathogens on OSCC progression and the contribution of periodontal pathogen-stimulated OSCC to PD development. The expression of osteoclastogenesis-inducing factors was assessed using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis following stimulation of OSCC with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) derived from the periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg), a pathogen commonly responsible for PD. The cell counting kit-8 assay was used to determine the effects of Pg-LPS on OSCC proliferation and drug resistance to cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil. The effects of conditioned medium (CM) derived from Pg-LPS–stimulated OSCC on osteoclastogenesis was evaluated using tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining on bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs). Pg-LPS administration in SCC-25 and YD-8 OSCC cell lines induced a significant increase in receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand mRNA expression; however, it did not affect cell proliferation. Treatment with CM derived from Pg-LPS–stimulated SCC-25 or YD-8 cells markedly enhanced the formation of TRAP-positive multinucleated cells during osteoclast differentiation of BMMs. Altogether, these findings demonstrate that Pg-LPS–stimulated OSCC promoted osteoclastogenesis through a paracrine mechanism.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This disease is characterized by a wide spectrum of symptoms, ranging from mild to severe, including fatal outcomes. This study aims to review gustatory and salivary secretion dysfunctions and determine their potential pathogenic mechanisms. Gustatory impairment and salivary dysfunction are prevalent among patients with acute COVID-19 and those recovering from the disease. The mouth serves as a critical entry route for SARS-CoV-2. The cells within the oral epithelium, taste buds, and minor and major salivary glands express key entry factors for SARS-CoV-2, including angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, transmembrane serine protease 2, and furin. The co-occurrence of gustatory and salivary secretion dysfunctions possibly has pathogenetic association with the following factors: the expression of SARS-CoV-2 cellular entry receptors in the taste buds and salivary glands and SARS-CoV-2–induced zinc deficiency, which is crucial for normal taste perception and saliva secretion. Furthermore, the cytokine storm triggered by COVID-19 contributes to secondary damage affecting gustatory and salivary functions.

Bovine rotavirus (BRV) is one of the common gastrointestinal diseases that can occur in calves, causing severe diarrhea. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of oral administration of single-domain antibodies, single variable domain of heavy chain of HCAb (VHH), on the prevention and treatment of rotavirus-induced diarrhea in calves. Thirty calves were divided into five experimental groups (negative control, positive control, group A, group B and group C). Except for the negative control group, the experimental groups were inoculated with BRV on the 4th day after birth. The VHH supplementation groups were fed with a substitute milk containing different concentrations of VHH (1%, 2.5% and 7.5%). Changes in body weight, clinical symptoms, serum antibodies, and virus detection in feces were observed for a total of 10 days in each experimental group. The results showed a higher survival rate in the VHH supplementation groups compared to the positive control group. Clinical symptoms caused by rotavirus were alleviated in the VHH supplementation groups. The detection rate of rotavirus in feces also decreased. Gross findings indicated that the severity of disease in the VHH supplementation groups was milder than that in the positive control group. Therefore, VHH could be proposed as a useful alternative for the prevention and treatment of rotavirus-induced diarrhea in calves.

최근 국내외 화장품과 식품산업에서 다양하게 사용되어 지고 있는 콜라겐 단백질 제품은 점차 그 용도와 특성에 따라 보다 고도화, 기능화 되어 가고 있다. 피부 건강의 지표인 콜라겐은 다양한 용도로 개발되어 사용되고 있으 며, 콜라겐의 소비가 증가함에 따라 용도에 적합한 최적 화된 콜라겐 제품의 개발이 중요한 연구 분야이다. 특히 여러 기업과 연구기관들에 의해서 콜라겐의 흡수율을 높 이기 위한 다양한 노력이 이루어지고 있다. 따라서 본 연 구에서는 프란즈(Franz) 세포 시스템을 이용하여 국내에서 판매되는 다양한 분자량별 콜라겐 제품의 경피 및 구강 상피세포 투과성을 비교하였다. 그 결과, 피부 표피/진피 조직과 비교하여 구강점막 조직의 콜라겐 흡수율이 분자 량 500달톤과 1,000달톤의 경우 모두 통계적으로 유의하 게(각각 약 10배, 2배) 높은 것으로 확인되었다. 또한, 분 자량별 구강점막 조직 흡수율을 비교한 결과, 분자량 500 달톤의 콜라겐이 분자량 1,000달톤 제품에 비해 흡수율이 2-3배 증가함을 확인하였다. 분자량 500달톤의 경우 Cmax 와 AUCt 값이 가장 높게 나타났으며, 피부 표피/진피 세 포에 비해 구강점막세포 시험군의 모든 지표가 높은 것으 로 나타났다. 본 연구 결과는 피부 흡수보다는 구강 점막 세포를 통한 콜라겐의 흡수방법이 콜라겐 체내 흡수증가 에 유효한 수단임을 시사하며, 분자량 1,000달톤 이하에서 도 보다 더 작은 500달톤의 저분자 콜라겐의 흡수율이 증 가되는 것으로 보아 콜라겐의 분자량이 흡수율 증가의 주 요한 요소임을 확인할 수 있었다.

Oral verruciform xanthoma (OVX) is an uncommon benign lesion of the oral mucosa, clinically mimicking various verrucous lesions. This study aimed to describe the clinicopathological characteristics of OVX. Twenty-one patients diagnosed with OVX were collected. The patients’ age, sex, medical history, clinical features, and treatment were reviewed. Archived slides were reviewed, and periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining with CD68, CD1a, and S-100 were performed. OVXs affected 13 males and 8 females (M: F=1.6:1) with a mean age of 52 ± 21 years. The most prevalent site was the gingiva (57.1%), followed by the hard palate (28.5%). The lesions presented as an asymptomatic solitary lesion with verrucous or granular surface, with exception of one case with multiple papules on the hard palate. PAS-positive granules were found in xanthoma cells in 14 (66%) specimens. IHC revealed that xanthoma cells were positive for CD68 and negative for CD1a and S-100 in all specimens. Most lesions were successfully excised, and none of the lesions have recurred. Clinicians should include OVX in the differential diagnosis of various verrucous lesions in the oral cavity to provide appropriate management.

Traditional medicine and herbal remedies are gaining popularity worldwide, comprising a significant portion of healthcare research, advancements, and market demand. Growing scientific evidence supports their substantial efficacy as pharmaceutical ingredients and dietary supplements in preventive healthcare. When developing pharmaceuticals, it is crucial to ensure that ingredients are free from side effects and toxicity in order to prioritize safety. Geckos, known as shou gong, are a diverse group of lizards that are widely utilized for treating various diseases in Korean Medicine. This study was conducted to assess the potential acute toxicity of a water extract Gekko gecko by a single oral dose in Sprague-Dawley rats. Twenty rats of each sex were randomly assigned to four groups (5 rats each). Test articles were administrated once by oral gavage to rats at dose levels of 0, 500, 1,000, or 2,000 mg/kg body weight. Mortality, changes of body weight, and clinical signs of gross observation were monitored for 14 days after dosing. At the end of a 14-day observation period, all animals were sacrificed and complete macroscopic and hematological examinations were performed. There was no dead animal or test article-related effect on clinical signs, body weight, or gross finding. Other specific changes were not found between control and treated groups in hematology. Results showed no adverse effect at a dose of 500, 1,000, or 2,000 mg/kg in rats. The minimal lethal dose was considered to be over 2,000 mg/kg body weight in rats.

Ophiopogonin D (OPD) is a steroidal glycoside derived from Ophiopogon japonicus , a traditional Chinese medicine with diverse biological activities, including antithrombosis, anti-inflammation, and antitussive effects. To investigate the cellular effects and mechanisms of OPD on oral squamous cell carcinoma, cell viability was explored, and the effects of OPD on cell cycle regulators, apoptotic marker proteins, and key proteins involved in metastasis and signaling pathways were examined by MTT assay and Western blotting in YD38 cells. OPD strongly inhibited cell proliferation and induced caspase-dependent apoptosis of YD38 cells by suppressing the cell cycle and activating caspase-3 and poly ADP ribose polymerase. Additionally, OPD suppressed the expression of vital proteins regulating metastasis and proliferation within the integrin/matrix metalloproteinases/FAK and AKT/PI3K/mTor pathways. Thus, OPD can be a potential treatment candidate for gingival cancer.

이 연구는 구강보건정책 연구 동향을 파악하여 구강보건정책 개선에 활용할 기초자료를 제공하고자 하였다. 2010년부터 2024년까지 RISS에 게재된 구강보건정책 관련 연구 97편의 주제어를 Net-Miner 4.0 프로그 램으로 네트워크 분석한 결과는 다음과 같다. 구강보건정책 연구 주제어 의 출현 빈도는 노인, 구강관리, 구강보건인식이 높게 나타났다. 연결 중 심성이 높은 주제어는 구강관리, 융복합, 삶의 질이었다. 구강보건정책 연구 응집구조분석 결과 1집단은 유아 청소년 구강보건정책, 2집단은 성 인 구강보건 정책, 3집단은 노인 구강보건정책, 4집단은 치주 및 보험 구강보건정책, 5집단은 삶의 질 관련 구강정책 영향요인 연구로 구성되 었다. Modularity 값은 0.257로 모듈화됨을 확인하였다. 구강보건정책 연구는 대상자, 중대구강질환, 삶의 질 중심으로 진행되었고 고령화 사회 시대적 흐름을 반영한 정책연구 확대가 요구되었다.

Orthokeratinized odontogenic cysts are developmental cysts that occur in the jaw that account for approximately 7%–17% of all cysts in the jaws. Studies have shown that malignant transformation of odontogenic cysts most often occurs in inflammatory cysts, such as periapical cysts, but malignant transformation of orthokeratinized odontogenic cysts has also been reported. In this report, we present an uncommon case of squamous cell carcinoma arising from an orthokeratinized odontogenic cyst.

The Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology was established in March 1970 by Dr. Young Pill Cho. Successive chairpersons of the department have included Dr. Han Kook Cho, Dr. Jaeo Cho, Dr. Eun Chull Kim, and Dr. Sang Wook Kang, who held the position until 2021. The tasks of the Department of Oral Pathology include conducting lectures and laboratory work for undergraduate dental students, as well as for graduate students pursuing MSD and PhD degrees. The department also engages in research within the field of oral pathology and provides diagnostic services for tissues obtained from diseases affecting the oral and maxillofacial regions. The objectives of the department are to equip students with the appropriate knowledge and skills to diagnose and develop accurate treatment plans for diseases affecting oral and maxillofacial structures through lectures and laboratory work after graduation. Since the establishment of the Master's and PhD programs in Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, a total of 94 individuals have completed the Master's program, 45 individuals have completed the PhD program, and 1 individual has completed the Master-PhD collaboration program. Each participant completed their respective courses and obtained the appropriate degrees following the evaluation of their graduation theses.

Despite advancements in therapeutic approaches, radiotherapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy remain primary noninvasive treatments for patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Moreover, the 5-year survival rate for patients with OSCC has remained almost unchanged for several decades, and many side effects of chemotherapy still exist. In this study, three-dimensional (3D) models of OSCC were established using fibroblasts, and the efficacy of various biological inhibitors was evaluated. A culture of epithelial cells with two types of fibroblasts (hTERT-hNOFs and cancer-associated fibroblasts) within a type I collagen matrix resulted in the formation of a continuous layer of tightly packed cells compared to models without fibroblasts. Furthermore, the effects of biological chemicals, including Y27632, latrunculin A, and verteporfin, on these models were investigated. The stratified formation of the epithelial layer and invasion in OSCC 3D-culture models were effectively inhibited by verteporfin, whereas invasion was weakly inhibited by Y27632 and latrunculin. Collectively, the developed OSCC 3D-culture models established with fibroblasts demonstrated the potential for drug screening, with verteporfin showing promising efficacy.

GN01 is a new antiviral medicine acting against Korean Sacbrood virus (KSBV) of honeybees. It contains 5 mg/mL of active ingredient, double stranded RNAs(dsRNA), that homologous to KSBV ribonucleic acid coding coat protein (VP1) of virus and inducing RNA interference (RNAi). RNA medicine is generally recognized as safe for rapid breakage by intrinsic ribonuclease and limited absorption from gastrointestinal tract. However, there were no data of repeat-dose toxicity in laboratory animals for dsRNA targeting SBV. This study was performed to investigate toxicity of GN01 in SD rats after weekly oral dosing for 28 days and to determine its no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL). Male and female SD rats were orally administered with GN01 at 0, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg bw/day of dsRNA once per week for 28 days (total 5 administrations). The highest dose 100 mg/kg bw/day was determined based on the maximum volume injectable (20 mL/kg bw) via gavage. During treatment period, clinical signs, functional and sensory responses, body weights, food and water consumption, ophthalmological findings and urinalysis were investigated. After treatment period, hematological and clinical biochemistry tests and examination of necropsy findings, organ weights and histopathological lesions were performed. There were no significant differences between all test groups and vehicle control group in all measured parameters. Therefore, the NOAEL of GN01 was determined 100 mg/kg bw/day, the highest dose administered. In conclusion, repeated oral administration of GN01, a dsRNA medicinal product, is safe even at the maximum available dose in rats.

Oral bacterial infections substantially affect the development of various periodontal diseases and oral cancers. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the association between Fusobacterium nucleatum (F. nucleatum ), a major periodontitis (PT)-associated pathogen, and these diseases require extensive research. Previously, our RNAsequencing analysis identified a few hundred differentially expressed genes in patients with PT and peri-implantitis (PI) than in healthy controls. Thus, in the present study using oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells, we aimed to evaluate the effect of F. nucleatum infection on genes that are differentially regulated in patients with PT and PI. Human oral squamous cell carcinoma cell lines OSC-2O, HSC-4, and HN22 were used. These cells were infected with F. nucleatum at a multiplicity of infection of 100 for 3 hours at 37℃ in 5% CO2. Gene expression was then measured using reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Among 18 genes tested, the expression of CSF3, an inflammation-related cytokine, was increased by F. nucleatum infection. Additionally, F. nucleatum infection increased the phosphorylation of AKT, p38 MAPK, and JNK in OSC-20 cells. Treatment with p38 MAPK (SB202190) and JNK (SP600125) inhibitors reduced the enhanced CSF3 expression induced by F. nucleatum infection. Overall, this study demonstrated that F. nucleatum promotes CSF3 expression in OSCC cells through p38 MAPK and JNK signaling pathways, suggesting that p38 MAPK and JNK inhibitors may help treat F. nucleatum-related periodontal diseases by suppressing CSF3 expression.

본 연구의 목적은 날로 심각해지는 세대갈등이 개인과 사회발전의 저 해 요인으로 작용함에 따라 세대통합 제고를 위한 세대통합프로그램 개 발의 기초자료 제공에 있다. 노년 세대와 청소년 세대의 세대갈등에 주 목하여, 청소년과 노인을 대상으로 10년 이상 관련기관의 유경험자인 사 회복지 전공 교수 3명과 사회복지시설 종사자 3명을 대상으로 전문가 FGI를 실시하였다. 연구결과 5개의 상위 개념 ‘세대갈등과 통합’, ‘세대 통합 공감’,‘나의 세대통합 이야기’, ‘세대통합활동의 무대화’, ‘세대통합 활동 효과’와 12개의 하위 개념이 도출되어, 구술생애사를 기반으로 참 여자의 활동 결과물 전시와 공연으로 이어지는 구체적인 프로그램 방향 이 설정되었다. 구술생애사 기반 자료는 익숙한 일상사가 활동의 주요 소재가 됨으로써 생산자인 동시에 소비자가 되는 경험을 통해 프로그램 에 몰입할 수 있는 요인이 제공됨에 따라 참여자들의 상호 이해 증진으 로 세대통합 기여의 함의를 발견할 수 있었다.

The present study aimed to explore how pre-service teacher’s individual regulatory focus orientation, currently emerging as an interesting learner variable for language learning, could influence their Englishspeaking abilities. English teaching demonstration videos of 67 pre-service teachers were analyzed in terms of pronunciation, accuracy, and fluency. The regulatory focus orientations of participants were evaluated using a questionnaire. The results of data analysis, using multiple regression analysis, indicated that promotion-focus orientation was a significant positive predictor for pronunciation, fluency (words per minute, ratio of dysfluency), and accuracy (lexical errors, ratio of error-free AS-units). On the other hand, prevention-focus orientation did not emerge as a statistically significant factor affecting accuracy. However, it was observed to have a negative influence on both pronunciation and fluency. In light of the research findings that highlight the favorable impact of a promotion-focus orientation, suggestions were made for future teacher training programs aimed at enhancing the English proficiency of pre-service teachers.

The limitation of markers for chronic oral diseases such as oral lichen planus (OLP) and burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is a diagnostic challenge for clinicians. The pathogenesis of OLP and BMS is not yet fully understood. Therefore, diagnoses are mainly based on the observation of clinical features and history, rather than established markers. C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) are used to determine the state of inflammation; however, these markers have some limitations. Recently, a new inflammatory marker, pentraxin-3 (PTX3), has been identified in other systemic inflammatory diseases. PTX3 is a member of the pentraxin family and is classified as a long pentraxin. PTX3 is found in various human tissues, whereas the classical short pentraxin, CRP, is secreted only in the liver. PTX3 is a marker of autoimmune diseases and periodontitis. However, there are no studies on PTX3 in OLP and BMS; therefore, we sought to determine if PTX3 can be a diagnostic marker for OLP and BMS. PTX3 was found to be correlated with other inflammatory markers, suggesting its diagnostic value for inflammatory oral diseases. We also found that the PTX3 levels were lower in patients with OLP and BMS. ESR levels were elevated in the OLP and BMS groups, but CRP levels were not. Despite these associations, no correlation was found between PTX3 expression and other known clinical features of OLP and BMS. We suggest that PTX3 plays a role in the immunological and neurological pathways involved in the complex pathogenesis of OLP and BMS.

Purpose: Even today, cancer remains a challenge to overcome. The purpose of this study is to understand the current status of lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer in Koreans by identifying the survival rate of lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer in Koreans through long-term big data. Material and Method: This study utilized 2023 KOSIS (Cancer Registration Statistics, Ministry of Health and Welfare) academically. The 5-year relative survival rates of lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer from 1996 to 2020 were compared and analyzed at 5-year intervals. Results: The 5-year relative survival rate for lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer was 47.4% from 1996 to 2000, 54.5% from 2001 to 2005, 61.1% from 2006 to 2010, 65.5% from 2011 to 2015, and 69.7% from 2016 to 2020. From 1996 to 2005, the 5-year relative survival rate for lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer was higher than the 5-year relative survival rate for all cancers. However, in the recent 15 years from 2006 to 2020, the 5-year relative survival rate for lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer was lower than for all cancers. Conclusions: In conclusion, this long-term big data showed that the 5-year relative survival rate of lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer in Koreans has increased further in modern times. However, in order to increase the overall survival rate of all human cancers, continuous efforts to improve the survival rate of lip-oral-pharyngeal cancer are needed in the future.

Velvet antler is widely used as a traditional medicine, and numerous studies have demonstrated its tremendous nutritional and medicinal values including immunity-enhancing effects. This study aimed to investigate different deer velvet extracts (Sample 1: raw extract, Sample 2: dried extract, and Sample 3: freeze-dried extract) for proximate composition, uronic acid, sulfated glycosaminoglycan, sialic acid, collagen levels, and chemical components using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-light mass spectrometry. In addition, we evaluated the cytotoxic effect of the deer velvet extracts on BV2 microglia, HT22 hippocampal cells, HaCaT keratinocytes, and RAW264.7 macrophages using the cell viability MTT assay. Furthermore, we evaluated acute toxicity of the deer velvet extracts at different doses (0, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg) administered orally to both male and female ICR mice for 14 d (five mice per group). After treatment, we evaluated general toxicity, survival rate, body weight changes, mortality, clinical signs, and necropsy findings in the experimental mice based on OECD guidelines. The results suggested that in vitro treatment with the evaluated extracts had no cytotoxic effect in HaCaT keratinocytes cells, whereas Sample-2 had a cytotoxic effect at 500 and 1000 μg/mL on HT22 hippocampal cells and RAW264.7 macrophages. Sample 3 was also cytotoxic at concentrations of 500 and 1000 μg/mL to RAW264.7 and BV2 microglial cells. However, the mice treated in vivo with the velvet extracts at doses of 500–2000 mg/kg BW showed no clinical signs, mortality, or necropsy findings, indicating that the LD50 is higher than this dosage. These findings indicate that there were no toxicological abnormalities connected with the deer velvet extract treatment in mice. However, further human and animal studies are needed before sufficient safety information is available to justify its use in humans.