사회적기업에 대한 전 세계적 관심은 다양한 영역에서 확산되고 있으며, 우리나라 역시 사회적기업에 대한 정책적, 실무적 및 학문적 관심이 증가하고 있다. 그럼에도, 기존연구는 조직관리 혹은 인적자원관리 이슈들을 다루는데 소홀해왔고, 종사자를 대상으로 한 실증연구와 논의 역시 초기 단계이다. 사회적기업 은 영리조직보다 종업원의 동기를 유발시키는 것이 더 중요할 수 있고, 자기결정이론(Self determination theory)은 사회적기업 종업원들의 직무동기와 조직 유효성 관계를 설명하는데 유용한 틀을 제공할 수 있 다. 이에 본 연구는 사회적기업 종업원의 직무동기가 조직몰입 및 조직시민행동에 미치는 영향과 이 관계 에서 민주적 의사결정의 조절역할을 분석하고자 한다. 실증분석결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 직무동기(외재 적, 투사적 및 내재적 동기)는 조직몰입과 조직시민행동에 모두 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 내재적 동기는 조직몰입과 조직시민행동에 모두 유의적인 정(+)의 영향을 미쳤다. 반면, 투사적 동기는 조직시민행동에 유의미한 영향을 미치지만 조직몰입에는 한계적 수준으로 영향을 미쳤고, 외재적 동기는 조직몰입에 유의미한 영향을 미치지만 조직시민행동에는 한계적 수준으로 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났 다. 둘째, 민주적 의사결정의 조절역할과 관련하여, 민주적 의사결정은 내재적 동기와 조직 유효성(조직몰 입, 조직시민행동) 간 관계를 조절하였으나 외재적 동기와 투사적 동기와 조직 유효성 간 조절효과가 나 타나지 않았다. 사회적기업가들은 종업원의 내재적 동기를 강화시키기 위한 다양한 비금전 인센티브 등 이 중요함을 시사하였다. 결론에는 연구결과, 시사점 및 연구의 한계점 등이 논의 되었다.

Moral licensing is a non-conscious effect that provides a moral boost in the self-concept, which increases the preference for a relative immoral action by dampening the negative self-attributions associated with such behavior. Applied to a marketing context, moral licensing explains why a purchase of a green product (a positive moral act) is likely to increase the likelihood of subsequently purchasing a luxury good (a negative moral act). This study addresses the question how big this effect typically is and which factors influence its size by conducting a Meta-Analysis and a Meta-Regression. Based on a random effects model, the point estimate for the generalized effect size Cohen’s d is 0.365 (SE=0.047; p=0.000). Results of a Meta-Regression indicate, for the first time, that the three moderators cultural background, type of decision and type of comparison explain a substantial amount of the total variation of moral licensing effect’s size.

Although the internationalization decision making process amongst managers from developed nations has been extensively studied, this phenomenon has been sporadically explored among managers from newly opened and transition economies. Given the risks and commitment inherent in international market entry, a thorough understanding of the decision making process of managers in such dynamic markets becomes crucial in charting the firms’ future direction. Hence, drawing on concepts from cognitive science, this study aims to explore cognitive biases and mental models for international market entry decision making among managers from a transition economy, namely Myanmar. Myanmar is recognized as Asia’s last large economy to become globally linked. Myanmar has long posted a negative trade balance, with the import value nearly double that of exports. The country’s population of 54 million, its abundance of natural resources, and its economic integration in the fastest growing region of the world have attracted firms of global brands such as KFC and VISA, who strive to gain market access. After decades of military rule, Myanmar’s ‘open’ economy is dominated by state-run enterprises in heavy industries, with growing opportunities for the private sector to aid in the growth of the domestic market as well as to exploit foreign market opportunities. Scholars from a diverse range of disciplines have argued that elements of an organization’s international strategic abilities stem from managers’ cognitive processes that balance national, industry, organizational and functional issues (Prahalad & Doz, 1987). This study explores Myanmar decision-makers’ strategic cognition, which describes the information-filtering or sense-making process by which strategic issues are interpreted (Finkelstein, Hambrick & Cannella, 2009). The fact that management and marketing research in Myanmar contexts is virtually nonexistent, understanding the strategic decision making processes of managers in Myanmar is warranted, given the significant business opportunities for and within this country in transition. Strategic cognition describes the how cognitive structures relate to the decision process in terms of strategy formulation and implementation (Narayanan & Zane, 2011). Cognitive structures refer to the manager’s beliefs about the environment, the state of the organization, and the business portfolio. The strategic cognition perspective presumes that managers rely on their belief structures when undertaking a strategic decision task (Hambrick & Mason, 1984). According to Finkelstein et al. (2009), managers’ ability to deal with complex decisions is inhibited by cognitive biases as well as interpretive frames. Such biases, in part, influence which information is attended to and how it is interpreted. ‘Biases’ and ‘frames’ in decision making receive considerable attention in the strategic decision making literature because they often lead to committing decision errors. While there are a number of cognitive biases, our interest lies in framing bias (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984) because the interpretation of economic gains and losses are highly relevant for strategic decision making. Framing bias occurs when modifications in the way a decision problem is presented, focusing either on the potential gains or on the potential losses of alternatives, result in a change in the decision-makers’ initial preference, such as when a decision maker becomes risk-averse when gains are highlighted while becoming more risk-taking when losses are. Two propositions are tested in this study. First, if we assume that framing bias influences strategic decision making under complex and uncertain contexts, we should discover substantive differences in managers’ risk preferences. More specifically, differences should be found when managers are presented with alternative versions of elaborated problem scenarios that are the same in all aspects except for the fact that the alternatives have been systematically manipulated in terms of (1) the potential gains (positive presented version) or (2) the potential losses (negative presented version). Second, prior research reports that strategic cognition is influenced by personal characteristics (e.g. educational background) and values as well as organizational characteristics (e.g. firm size, firm age) (Finkelstein et al., 2009; Hambrick & Mason, 1984). With this in mind, we should observe significant differences in risk preferences between participants of different demographic and trait groups. This study implemented an experimental investigation into the potential framing and priming effects arising from a strategic marketing decision problem of whether to develop a new marketing plan to serve the home market or to commit marketing resources to the export market. The stimuli were adapted from those developed by Hodgkinson et al. (1999), which were crafted to solicit responses to a case scenario that described a convincing strategic investment decision encountered by a firm that provides innovative automotive vehicle fast paint-drying systems. This scenario was deemed appropriate for the Myanmar context given that the participants were familiar with automobiles and auto painting services. The scenario was moderately adapted to suit the Myanmar context, with a fictitious local firm, Yannawa Co., which was faced with domestic intensified competition and up-and-coming advanced technology product substitution. The case scenario was explained with about 260 words that describe Yannawa’s 10-year history, the domestic industry environment and Yannawa’s objective to achieve a profit of $3 million. A photo of a modern fast-drying automotive painting system was included in the stimuli. Participants were instructed to assume the role as one of Yannawa’s board of directors and were asked to choose one option between a ‘less-risky’ alternative (focus on the domestic market) with a higher likelihood of occurrence and a ‘riskier’ alternative (invest in overseas markets) that had two possible outcomes that had different likelihoods of occurrence. Framing effects were manipulated as positively and negatively worded versions. In the negatively framed version, participants had to choose between (A) developing a new marketing plan to serve its home market with a 100% chance this option will lead to profits of US$1 million below management’s targeted level or (B) committing its marketing to the export market overseas, with a 33% chance to reach the targeted level and a 66% chance to earn profits of US$3 million below management’s targeted level. In contrast, in the positively stated version, participants were asked to choose between (A) developing a new marketing plan to serve its home market with a 100% chance to earn profits of US$1 million or (B) committing to the export market with a 33% chance for profits of US$3 million and a 66% chance to make no profits at all. To control for potential priming effects, the presentation order of the alternatives varied, with the ‘less-risky’ higher likelihood of occurrence alternative presented first in the stimuli followed by the ‘riskier’ alternative, and vice versa in the other versions. Altogether, we developed four experimental conditions: positively versus negatively framed decision scenarios, with lower risk versus higher risk in alternate sequence. The research instrument also included items asking participant demographic characteristics. The decision task was also accompanied by a free-elicitation method to capture a mental model of the variables that the participant considered while making the decision. In other words, participants were asked in an open-ended question, “Please write in sequence the variables that you thought about while making your decision.” Unlike the stimuli of Hodgkinson et al. (1999), which provided a list of 18 variables, which participants could rely on to complete the cognitive mapping task, our free-elicitation method was deemed necessary in order to gain better insights to Myanmar managers’ thought processes. Both studies involved Myanmar professionals who were enrolled in a global MBA program being offered at campuses in Yangon and Mandalay where English is used as the medium of instruction. Study 1 comprised a sample of 118 students enrolled in the Marketing Management course, which is the first course taken in the program. The sample comprises 35 (29.7%) males and 83 (70.3%) females, with a majority (72%) within the age range of 22 to 31 years, and 62 (52.5%) with a Science education, 26 (22%) in Economics/Business and 21 (17.8%) in Arts/Language. A count of 46 (39.0%) occupy top/senior management positions, 36 (30.5%) are business owners, and the remaining 36 (30.5%) hold entry-level organization positions. Each participant was assigned randomly one of the four stimuli versions. The task was administered in class and participants were given 30 minutes to provide their responses. Study 2 replicated and extended these findings on a sample of 81 final semester MBA students in the same program. The sample composition of Study 2 is similar to that of Study 1. Data were analyzed using nonparametric approaches to test the significance of joint frequency distribution of cases. The statistical analyses indicate that the distribution of risk preferences are consistent in both Study 1 (i.e. participants new to the MBA program) and Study 2 (i.e. more experienced MBA students) (χ2 = 0.64, p = 0.27), which is similar to the findings of Bateman and Zeithaml (1989). Also, the risk preferences are consistent in both Yangon and Mandalay subgroups (χ2 = 0.00, p = 0.57). Thus, the data collected from both studies were pooled for further analyses. As for the control of priming effects, we find a significant difference in risk preferences (χ2 = 5.32, p = 0.04, 113 vs. 86), with a larger proportion of the second listed marketing alternative (i.e. more recent) being selected, irrespective of whether that alternative is higher-risk or lower-risk. With respect to a test of our first proposition of a framing effect, we found no support (χ2 = 0.32, p = 0.35) of a systematic association between framing and decision choice. The distribution of decisions shows that irrespective of whether the alternative was positively framed or negatively framed, a larger proportion of the participants chose to higher-risk alternative to focus on exporting. As for testing our second broad proposition that there would be significant risk preference differences between demographic groups in the sample, we found no support for sex (χ2 = 0.58, p = 0.27), age (χ2 = 0.29, p = 0.96), education background (χ2 = 2.40, p = 0.30), and no support for occupation (χ2 = 7.33, p = 0.11). The qualitative responses obtained from the free-elicitation section of the instrument, were analyzed by categorizing responses as either concrete, i.e. a greater focus on specific details (e.g. mention of numbers, such as ‘a 100% chance’, ‘a 33% chance’ and ‘$1 million below’, ‘profits of US$3 million’) or abstract, i.e. focus on the bigger picture (e.g. such as ‘more competition’, ‘threat of new products’). Based on this approach, we find that 138 (69.3%) of the participants began their mental model with an abstraction and 105 (52.8%) of those participants relied on a mental model that was entirely abstract, absent of specific details. In contrast, 33 (16.6) of the participants constructed mental models that were completely concrete, while the remaining 61 (30.7%) of the participants developed mental models comprising both abstract and concrete information inputs. Interestingly, a statistical test of an association between these three different mental models and risk preference show no significant association (χ2 = 2.80, p = 0.25). This exploratory study contributes to the management and international marketing literature by providing initial evidence and insights of the strategic cognition of Myanmar managers. The fact that there were no framing effects nor any differences in the risk preferences between different demographic groups suggest that participants in our study may be relying on a common heuristic (i.e. rule of thumb) that guides them towards the option to seek foreign market opportunities. The marketing doctrine concept introduced by Challagalla, Murtha and Jaworski (2014), is indicative of the influence of institution-wide principles that guide all decision-makers throughout the institution. In the case of Myanmar, national trade policies emphasizing export initiatives and increased export promotion activities may be regarded as fundamental drives for economic growth. As such, managers may be adopting this national principle to simplify their decision task and therefore prefer to pursue foreign market opportunities. Relatedly, it is worth noting that among the participants that opted to focus on the home market, nearly half were employed by a non-government organization (NGO) operating in Myanmar. This reiterates earlier findings of the influence of organizational characteristics on the strategic cognition of managers (Finkelstein et al., 2009; Hambrick & Mason, 1984). From our sample, we found that managers working for a NGO may be accustomed to adhering to their own organizational principles, which emphasize the needs of the domestic market. From a practical perspective, caution should be taken when decision managers rely largely on a heuristic approach to decision making. Although recent studies report that heuristics can be a valuable approach in the wake of overwhelming data and information (e.g. Patterson et al., 2012 ), others show that accurate mental models bring about better decision rules (e.g. Gary & Wood, 2011). To ensure that the decisions made by managers align both their personal preferences and the logic of rational choice, a deliberate model designed to compare the underlying costs and benefits of the decisions must be carefully developed in such a way to prevent decision makers from minor distractions. To date, our study is the first to gain insights on the ‘black box’ of decision making among a sample of managers from Myanmar. Despite the valuable insights provided from our exploratory study, it is not without limitations. Although our sample comprises businesspeople from two major cities in Myanmar and represents businesspeople from a diverse range of industries and demographic characteristics, the generalizability of our findings is still limited. In addition, we only designed and implemented one hypothetical business scenario in our study due to the complex nature of the decision task. Using one hypothetical case may further limit the generalizability. Moreover, our results revealing the absence of framing effects but the presence of priming effects seem inconsistent with prior studies that have reported that such effects alter individual perceptions. Based on our preliminary findings, future studies are called upon to verify, confirm, and extend this current study to other contexts in Myanmar and other emerging and transition economies.

Introduction Credit card issuers across countries now offer automated payment facilities online to ensure that consumers commit to regular repayments. However, insofar it is unclear whether repayment automation leads to better financial decisions. With an average of $880 billion of revolving debt in the U.S., it is no surprise that policy developers seek to remedy the global credit card debt problem. The current research makes three contributions. First, our study raises public awareness about the negative effects of automated payments on credit card repayments. Contrary to the established assumptions that autopay helps consumers to manage consumer finances (e.g., www.directdebit.co.uk), our experiment unanimously show that autopay facilities reduce the amount of credit card repayment. Second, our study offers a contemporary and relevant insight into the consumers’ online credit card management, which is distinct from its offline counterpart. Specifically, in an online environment, consumers can process information on their credit card and saving almost simultaneously. For example, some consumers may access credit and saving accounts in different browser tabs, while others who own credit and saving accounts from the same institutions may be able to access both accounts within the same webpage. Finally, our study enriches understanding of individual differences in repayment decisions behaviour. Our results indicate that certain attitudinal tendencies to credit cards heightens the effect of autopay on repayment, but this effect is intensified when the context involves those with low level of saving. Conceptual Development The Psychology of Automated Payment Credit cardholders often set up automatic monthly payments to avoid missed payments and incur penalties. The freedom and convenience associated with online banking means that credit card consumers can easily set up automated payment at an amount that they feel comfortable. Consumers can choose any amount ranging from the minimum amount, which is typically is set at 2% of the overall balance, to the full credit card balance. Prior research on goal pursuits suggests that people divide goals into subtasks to experience the motivational benefits of greater self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). In this case, the use of automated repayment provides a sense of goal progress as it allows repayments to be made in smaller instalments, which in turn, bolsters one’s perception of self-efficacy with respect to the overall goal (i.e. total credit card balance). However, a boosted sense of achievement resulting from subgoal completion may lead consumers to undermine absolute progress towards the overall goal. As such, the subgoal – rather than the superordinate goal – becomes the most salient point of reference for individuals’ motivations towards goal pursuit (Besharat, Carrillat, & Ladik, 2014). Unfortunately, the focus on subgoals can lead to a sense of complacency and reduced persistence towards superordinate goal (Gal & McShane, 2012). Therefore, we expect that the presence of automated repayment cause consumers to focus on the more manageable subgoals (i.e., monthly repayments) rather than the unwieldy superordinate goals (i.e., total credit card balance). In addition, we theorise that the convenience of automated payment removes the salience of the “pain of paying” (Prelec & Loewenstein, 1998) away from future credit card repayment. A key characteristic of credit card expenses is that the “pain” of payment, which provides a nudge for self-reflection and intervention from overspending, is held at bay until the end of the month. However, with automated payment, such deliberation point is subverted to a one-time deliberation. Because automated payment shifts attention away from subordinate goals and reduces the complexity of monthly deliberation, we expect that consumers making automated credit card repayments will commit to less amount of repayment than those making non-automated payments. H1: Automated payment leads to lower repayment amount compared to regular non-automated payment. The Psychology of Credit and Saving Accounts The default setup of many credit card accounts tends to demarcate credit and debit (saving) accounts. For example, consumers may have separate login accounts to access information about their credit and debit accounts. Such financial accounts separation means that consumers also categorise debt and saving into separate mental accounts (Hershfield, Sussman, O’Brien, & Bryan, 2015). Previous research suggests that such erroneous categorization of overall wealth can lead consumers to make financially detrimental decisions, such as taking on high-interest rate debt, while simultaneously holding money in low-interest rate saving account (Sussman & O’Brien, 2015). The absence of overall wealth information in credit card accounts and statements means that people are likely to focus their attention to arbitrary information that may misshape one’s perception of wealth. We therefore expect that the absence of accurate information of financial capability in the form of saving account balance will lead consumers to anchor their repayment decisions on perceived wealth informed by the available credit limit. In contrast, the presence of saving information in credit card account has a direct influence over credit card repayment decision because it represents an accurate picture of one’s overall wealth. Thus, higher (lower) balance of saving account will lead to higher (lower) credit card repayment. We expect that the positive effect of credit and saving account on repayment transcend over the effect of repayment mode (i.e. automated versus non-automated repayment) as it reconciles the consumers’ saving and debt mental accounts. Hence: H2: The amount in saving account influences the amount of credit card repayment. Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Credit Card Debts Prior studies regularly report that credit card as a payment mechanism yield psychological effect on the consumers’ evaluation at the point of purchase. In comparison to more transparent and vivid payment methods such as cash, credit card payments causes consumers to trivialise past payment (Soman, 2001), reduces self-control (Chatterjee & Rose, 2012) and overvalue past income (Soman & Cheema, 2002). However, other studies suggest that consumers exhibit different individual differences in susceptibility to credit card’s psychological effects (Awanis & Cui, 2014; Rick, Cryder, & Loewenstein, 2008). For example, those characterised as spendthrifts, instant gratifiers, low in self-regulation and financial sophistication are likely to emphasise on the bright side of credit cards (i.e., spending/lifestyle facilitator). Consequently, these consumers tend to overspend with their credit cards. We expect that such individual differences in credit card mentality will reflect on the consumers’ repayment habits. Thus, we expect a negative relationship between individual-level susceptibility to credit card debts and repayment amounts. In addition, we also expect that individual differences in credit card debts susceptibility will moderate the relationship between automated payment and repayment decision (H1). Indeed, those who advocate the bright side of credit card (high susceptibility) may appreciate, or even celebrate automated payment facilities, as it makes credit card experience more convenient and worry-free. To this end, we suggest that individual-level differences in susceptibility to credit card debts will moderate the relationship between automated payment and repayment amounts. Furthermore, we propose that such moderated relationship is stronger and consequently more problematic among those with constrained resources (low saving). Specifically, cash-strapped consumers are at risk of placing greater emphasis on the bright side of credit cards to make up for their lack of financial resources. The combined effects of individual susceptibility to credit card effects and the misguided promise of automated payment are likely to lead these individuals to a path of revolving debt. Meanwhile, those with sufficient resources are unlikely to suffer the same extent of indebtedness due to their wealth. Thus, we hypothesise that the moderating effect of individual susceptibility to credit card debts on the relationship between automated payment and repayment amount will differ across those with low and high saving: H3: In low saving conditions, susceptibility to credit card debts moderates the relationship between automated payment and the amount of credit card repayment; in high saving no such moderation effect is expected. Method We conducted a 5 (current account balance) x 2 (payment mode) between-subject experiment involving a hypothetical scenario and repayment decisions. Current account balance has five levels: no account balance information (served as a control condition), $500, $1000, $2000 and $3000 and payment has two levels: autopay and regular payment. Across all experimental conditions, the minimum required payment and credit card balance were kept constant. In total, eight hundreds and nine US credit card users (458 women, 11% were aged 18-44 years, 42% from 25-34 years, 24% from 35-44 years and 23% were aged more than 45 years) were drawn from Amazon Mechanical Turk and were paid $.35 each for participation. Participants were asked to imagine that they had just logged onto their online account where they could see their online credit card statement with a balance of $1.937.28 and a minimum payment of £35.78. This minimum required payment was equal to two-percent of balance. The amount of credit card balance reflects the U.S. average of consumer credit card balance (Salisbury, 2014). Participants were told that they also saw their current accounts (i.e., the amount of money in their debit cards) and were also told that they do not have any other forms of financial obligations. Participants were instructed to indicate the amount of credit card repayment they would make in the light of the information provided in the online statement. We expect that the consumers’ understanding of compounding interest will affect their credit card repayment decisions. Therefore, we controlled for the participants’ financial knowledge, measured using three quiz-style questions following Navarro-Martinez, et al. (2011). Scores were calculated by tabulating the number of correct answers (one score for a right answer and zero for a wrong answer) and points are summed across the three questions to arrive at a single knowledge score. We measure participants’ susceptibility to credit cards effect (SCCE) by a 12-items scale adapted from Awanis and Cui (2014) (Cronbach’s α=0.89). The scale has been found to be invariant across cultures e.g., UK and Singapore. The scale items used a 7-point Likert format (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree). Results and discussions A 5 (account balance) x 2 (payment mode) ANOVA revealed a main effect of current account balance, F(4,755)=61.50, p<0.001, η2=.246, such that higher current account will lead to higher repayment (Mcontrol=$960.64 (SD=53.91), M1=$181.85 (SD=58.08), M2=$390.55 (SD=53.78), M3=$1075.07 (SD=54.71), M4=$1138.45 (SD=51.84), see Figure 1). The ANOVA design also revealed a main effect of autopay vs regular payment mode, F(1,755)=28.44, p<0.001, η2=.04, such that the autopay (Mautopay=619.39, SD=35.17) brought about lower payments than the regular mode (MRegular=879.24, SD=33.72). Therefore, H1 and H2 are supported. Interaction effect of payment mode and susceptibility within low versus high account balance. We then examined the interaction effect of payment mode and susceptibility to credit card debt within three conditions: account balance is lower than the credit balance (high saving) and account balance is higher than the credit balance, and a control condition. We, therefore, recode the five levels of account balance experimental conditions into a dummy variable with three levels: 0 for control, 1 for low account balance and 2 for high account balance. The experimental conditions with account balance lower than the credit balance (i.e., $500 and $1000) is coded as 1 and those with account balance higher than the credit balance is coded as 2, no account balance information presented (i.e., control condition) is coded as 0. We centred the means of SCCE and use a PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2013) to estimate the interaction effect. Within low balance: the moderated regression results revealed the main effect of autopay (b=-233.23, t=-7.46, p=<0.001), main effect of SCCE (b=-43.318, t=13.04, p=<0.001) and interaction effect between autopay and SCCE (b=-81.48, t=25.64, p=<0.001) on credit card repayment. Simple slope analysis reveals that at there were significant differences in the repayment amount between low vs. high SCCE for regular participants (b=-81.70, t==-5.55, p<0.001). In contrast, for autopay participants, the effect of SCCE on credit card repayment is not significant (b=-.21, t=-.01, n.s). Within high balance: the moderated regression results revealed the main effect of autopay (b=-317.39, t=-3.57, p=<0.001) and main effect of SCCE (b=-135.10, t=-3.88, p=<0.001) on credit card repayment. The interaction effect between autopay and SCCE on credit card repayment is not significant p>.5).Within control: the moderated regression results revealed the main effect of autopay (b=-301.69, t=-2.13, p=<0.001) and main effect of SCCE (b=-156.24, t=-2.58, p=<0.001). The interaction effect between autopay and SCCE is not significant p>.5). Figure 2 shows the interaction effect discussed above for the two account balance experimental conditions: low account balance (panel A), high account balance (panel B). Patterns in control condition is similar to panel B. Based on these results, H3 is supported. General Discussion Automated payment is not as virtuous as many have assumed. In fact, autopay facilities encourage may reduce consumers’ long-term goal of debt repayment by craftily shifting attention away from superordinate goals to the more manageable and rewarding subgoals. We recommend that policy developers and practitioners should exercise caution in promoting the use of automated payment to enhance financial management. Such recommendations should come with a set of actionable guides to reduce debt levels in shorter time. Our findings also suggest that separation of many credit and debit accounts means that people tend to categorize debt and saving into separate mental accounts. This affects people’s ability to make informed repayment decisions, which should reflect one’s real ability to pay. Interventions that help people to accurately measure their real financial capabilities are expected to raise their repayment decisions. Therefore, we suggest that policy makers and practitioners reconcile credit card and saving account in a single online platform to enhance the consumers’ repayment decision.

South Korea has led the global online game markets successfully in the mobile game platform based social network service with commercialization and showed the potential of the mobile game market. Currently, Korea's game industry is accelerating the global expansion for the mobile game market based on online game technology and mobile infrastructure. However, recently as mobile games attract attention in the mobile business and digital entertainment markets, the competition grows so fast. Cooperation between game developers and publishers have important implications in mobile games as well as online games for competitiveness through selection and concentration. This study was designed to support decision making at the outsourcing for publisher and the development of mobile games with key success factor analysis. The key evaluation factors of the mobile game were extracted through the literature review and expert groups, and then the relative importance between each factor was derived to take advantage of the AHP, Multi-criteria decision method. Differences between the online game and mobile game were analysed in this evaluation process. Also we were able to verify this evaluation model by applying the released mobile game. As a result, accomplishment and gambling in the mobile game was found to be a key factor. Also differentiation factors from online game were social factor, scalability, reliability. Unlike the previous studies which have been focused on online games, this study offers the guideline of the decision making for the business success in the mobile game development and the sourcing, the most important steps in publishing business.

This paper empirically studies foreign investor investment decision-making factors of game industry. First of all, I couldn´t find many significant results relation to business performance. In terms of safety, The negative(-) relationship could be found between current ration, debt ration and foreign ownership. The growth(growth rate of sales, net profit growth rate) showed positive(+) relationship with foreign ownership. In terms of profitability, Between ROE, ROA and foreign ownership also showed positive(+) relationship . Finally, the R&D investments and weight of export are positive(+) related to foreign ownership. In this results, I can conjecture about foreign investor focus on Safety , Growth , Profitability. especially, can be inferred that R&D and weight of export factors attract foreign investors.

최근 유럽 의회와 이사회가 합의한 유럽연합 개인정보보호 규칙안은 정보처리기술의 발달에 따른 다양한 개인정보 활용 태양에 대하여 기존의 유럽연합 개인정보보호지침보다 세분화된 규정들 을 두고 있다. 이 중 빅데이터의 활용과 관련하여 특히 주목할 만한 부분은, 목적외 이용과 프로파 일링을 비롯한 자동화된 개인정보처리 및 이에 근 거한 개인에 대한 중요 결정에 대한 취급에 관한 사항들이다. 이에 본고에서는 현행의 유럽연합개 인정보보호지침과 새로운 규칙안, 그리고 우리나 라의 정보통신망법과 개인정보보호법의 관련 규 정을 비교해 보았다. 특히 규칙안과 우리나라법을 비교하여 볼 때, 규칙안은 목적외 이용에 관하여 우리나라 법보다 다소 유연한 규정을 두고 있으며, 프로파일링은 물론 프로파일링에 근거한 개인에 대한 자동화된 개별 결정에 대한 규정을 따로 두고 있다. 또한, 목적외 이용 및 프로파일링, 자동화된 개별 결정 과 관련하여 정보주체의 권익을 보호하기 위한 보호조치를 강조하고 있다. 이와 같은 접근은 정 보처리기술의 발달로 다양한 방식 및 내용의 개 인정보처리가 가능해지고, 이로 인하여 정보주체 의 권익에 미치는 영향이 커지는 현실을 감안할 때 우리 법의 입법론으로서도 참고할 만하다고 생각된다.

이 판례평석은 보험사고 중 보험자의 면책사항에 해당하는 자살에 대 해 보험자의 책임을 인정하는 법원의 판결에 관한 것이다. 이 판례평석 에서 인용한 판례들은, ① 극도로 흥분된 상태에서 자살한 사안에 대한 판례(대법원 2006.3.10. 선고 2005다49713 판결), ② 만취된 상태에서 자살한 사안에 대한 판례(대법원 2008.8.21. 선고 2007다76696 판결), ③ 정신질환 상태에서 자살한 사안에 대한 판례(서울고등 2007.11.27. 선고 2007나14508 판결)들로 이는 우리나라 생명보험표준약관(보험업 감독규정시행세칙 제5-13조 제1항 관련) 제5조에서 규정하는 보험자가 보험금을 지급하지 않는 사유 (① 피보험자가 고의로 자신을 해친 경우, ② 보험수익자가 고의로 피보험자를 해친 경우, ③ 계약자가 고의로 피 보험자를 해친 경우) 의 예외조항(동조 제1호)인 피보험자의 고의적인 보험사고에 대하여 피보험자가 심신상실 등으로 자유로운 의사결정을 할 수 없는 상태에서 자신을 해친 경우 에 보험자의 책임을 인정한 것 들이다. 법원은 상법 제659조 제1항 및 제732조의2의 입법 취지에 비추어 볼 때, 사망을 보험사고로 하는 보험계약에 있어서 자살을 보험자의 면책사 유로 규정하고 있는 경우, 그 자살은 사망자가 자기의 생명을 끊는다는 것을 의식하고 그것을 목적으로 의도적으로 자기의 생명을 절단하여 사 망의 결과를 발생케 한 행위를 의미하며, 피보험자가 정신질환 등으로 자유로운 의사결정을 할 수 없는 상태에서 사망의 결과를 발생케 한 경 우까지 포함하는 것이라고 할 수 없을 뿐만 아니라, 그러한 경우 사망의 결과를 발생케 한 직접적인 원인행위가 외래의 요인에 의한 것이라면 그 보험사고는 피보험자의 고의에 의하지 않은 우발적인 사고로서 재해에 해당한다. 고 판단하고 있다. 보험의 가장 중요한 기능은 우연한 사고가 발생한 경우, 구성원으로 하여금 경제적 어려움과 불안을 극복하는 데 도움을 주는 것이다. 물론 보험계약이 가지는 사행계약적 성격으로 인해 처음부터 보험금 취득을 목적으로 보험계약을 체결하거나, 생명보험계약 체결 후 고의로 피보험 자를 살해하는 것과 같은 보험범죄, 도덕적 해이의 문제 및 역선택의 문 제 등과 같은 역기능이 있는 것도 사실이다. 그리고 고의 자살사고의 경우, 보험의 순기능보다는 역기능 성격이 표 출될 여지도 많지만, 자살사고라고 할지라도 고의성이 내포되어 있지 않 은 사고 또한 적지 않은 것도 사실이고, 역기능적 성격보다는 그 사회 구성원의 경제안정을 통한 사회보장적 기능을 극대화 시키는 것이 보험 제도 본연의 취지에 더욱더 부합하는 것이라 할 것이다. 현행 상법이나 생명보험표준약관이 고의사고인 자살의 경우에도 일정 한 조건에 부합되면 이를 면책하지 않고 부책할 수 있는 단서 조항을 두 고 있는 이유도 보험의 역기능 보다는 순기능적 측면에 초점을 맞춘 것 으로 보아야 한다. 따라서 정신질환 등으로 자유로운 의사결정을 할 수 없는 상태 인 경 우, 피보험자 자신의 행동을 이해할 수 없고 그 행동에 대한 결과를 알 수 없는 상태임이 명백하므로 상법 제659조의 적용보다는 상법 제732조 의2를 적용함이 보다 합리적이라 판단된다. 또한 보험은 경제적 안정 이 라는 순기능을 가지고 있는 바, 자유로운 의사결정을 할 수 없는 상태 에서의 자살인 경우, 남겨진 유족에게 경제적 안정이라는 긍정적인 측면 을 가져올 수 있다는 부분도 간과할 수 없으므로 보험의 순기능적인 측 면에 입각하여 해석할 필요가 있다고 본다.

한우 사육두수는 한우 암소의 번식 정도가 어느 정도인지에 따라서 결정된다. 한우 암소의 번식 여부 는 산지가격에 대한 기대가격에 따라 결정된다. 이 논문은 한우 암소 번식농가의 의사결정 행위를 분석 한 것이다. 이를 위해 네 가지 기대모형이론을 적용하여 어느 모형이 보다 적합한 모형인지를 비교하였 다. 산지가격에 대한 기대가격을 형성함에 있어서 순수기대모형, 적응적기대모형, 부분조정모형, 합리적 기대모형 등 네 가지 모형을 적용하였다. 그리고 이들 네 가지 기대모형을 근거로 실제 암소도축과 송 아지공급함수를 추정하였다. 그 결과 한우 암소 번식농가의 의사결정은 상대적으로 복잡한 적응적기대 모형이나 부분조정모형보다는 순수기대모형이나 합리적기대모형으로 잘 설명되는 것으로 분석되었다. 또한, 모형 전체의 적합도에서는 합리적기대모형이 가장 우수한 것으로 나타났다.

Background & Research Objectives The ever-changing nature of fashion and multicultural consumption motives shape and challenge the contemporary global fashion world. To some extent, it has been experienced that individuals across countries engage in similar fashion movements simultaneously. Therefore, it may be assumed that there partially exists a homogenized, transnational global consumer segment when it comes to the purchase of clothing items. Nevertheless, on the other hand, there still remain several divergences in the consumption behavior of fashion products around diverse parts of the world (Yurchisin & Johnson, 2010). It is universally agreed that consumers engage in shopping with specific decision-making modes and styles which make the search for a common instrument that is able to describe the purchase orientation of fashion consumers across cultures quite problematic and challenging. Indeed, according to the buyer´s cultural backgrounds, fashion consumption motives and the benefits searched for when buying an apparel product could be very different (Tahmid, 2012).Today´s fashion consumer is characterized by a continuously evolving set of complex wants and needs that can be satisfied by a wide variety of competing alternatives (Pandey & Dixit, 2011). The different aspirations and motivations which consumers express are generally shaped by various shopping outcomes which they are prone to achieve (Yurchisin & Johnson, 2010).Motivation is described as an internal state that activates goal-oriented behaviour. It refers to the processes that lead people to behave as they do. It occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy. The need creates a state of tension that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate it. This need may be utilitarian (i.e., a desire to achieve some functional or practical benefit) or it may be hedonic (i.e., an experiential need, involving emotional responses or fantasies). Marketers try to create products and services to provide the desired benefits and help the consumer to diminish this tension (Solomon, 2013).It is advocated that fashion consumption is made up of two major categories of drivers, namely social consumption motives and individual consumption motives which both represent psychological determinants. Those psychological factors influencing apparel purchase behavior can be separated into rational, emotional (perceptional) and patronage motives (Diamond, 2005). Rational motives replicate a pragmatic orientation, such as quality- or price consciousness in purchase behavior. In contrast, emotional drivers include, amongst others, motivations linked to physical vanity and fashion consciousness, adventure-, gratification- and pleasure seeking, materialism, status and conspicuousness, impulsive and compulsive consumption. Patronage motives, on the other hand, reflect habitual buying and for instance are connected to brand-consciousness and store loyalty (Diamond, 2005). By profiling international apparel consumers based on their individual decision-making styles and modes, more meaningful ways to identify and understand different cross-cultural customer segments are offered. As a result, fashion industries are able to target each customer segment with more focused marketing-strategies, based on their motives and aimed-for benefits linked to purchasing clothing products.This topic raises a number of important questions for researchers and practitioners. To the authors´ knowledge no empirical contributions to compare and contrast prevalent motives of apparel consumption in Western nations exist. Hence, in order to fill this research gap and broaden this important research area, this explorative study focuses on the identification and discussion of similarities and differences in buying characteristics between the USA, France, Germany and Austria by analyzing valuable motives that have not yet been empirically examined in a cross-cultural fashion context. Methodology Starting with a review of existing literature regarding generic consumer decision making motives, like e.g. Sproles & Kendall (1986), Mokhlis (2009) and Hiu, Siu, Wang & Chang (2001), an initial classification into rational, emotional and patronage motiveswas undertaken for the field of fashion, which later on was expanded using the results of a qualitative pre-study conducted with 50 interviewees in New York to gain first insights as a basis for the proximate, main empirical research. In compliance with triangulation theory in social science (see e.g. Cohen & Manion, 2000), which advocates data collection from manifold sources, a combination of quantitative and qualitative research was carried out in the core study, consisting of expert interviews and an online consumer survey. Due to a lack of existing literature foundation, the main research is explorative and not based on specific hypotheses. In the first section, a qualitative analysis of the mentioned motives was done using NVivo on the grounds of 16 expert interviews with fashion marketing communication and design experts in the four research countries. The second part of the empirical study was conducted via a quantitative consumer survey, to enable a Web based questioning through Lime Survey. To minimize possible language barriers, the questionnaire was delineated in three languages, translated from English into French and German by bilingual professionals in order to ensure best possible quality, precision, accuracy, reliability and validity of the empirical study. For this specific type of quantitative research, a stratified random sampling procedure was applied. Altogether, 693 individuals (482 female and 211 male subjects) participated in the online survey, 174 in USA, Germany and Austria respectively, and 171 in France. The total non-student sample included participants with a mean age of 28.4 years. Subjects were asked to evaluate 22 rational, emotional and patronage motives derived from literature and the pretest on a 7 point Likert scale. Cross-cultural similarities and differences were revealed throughout the examination process. An analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) on the mean values and a subsequent Post-Hoc Tukey Test disclosed significant variations between the four nations for 15 out of the 22 tested motivational determinants influencing fashion consumption behavior. In a first step, the authors refrained from using a factor analysis, in order to retain more detailed information. Findings demonstrate that American consumers pay the most attention towards price-value relations and cheap deals, compared to the remaining countries. They additionally consider quality attributes the least when deciding upon which fashion products to buy. In contrast to the other nations, American consumers are most pragmatically oriented when deciding upon which apparel items to purchase. Furthermore, they engage the least in spontaneous clothes shopping in the spur of the moment. An investigation of the preferred brand segments per country supported these outputs by highlighting the statistic that American consumers buy significantly less apparel from the upper-middle price segment than Austrian, German or French consumers. Accordingly, in comparison to the other nations, American consumers purchase the most value/discount fashion. Moreover, outcomes illustrate that French consumers have a higher tendency of buying garments from the same stores and boutiques than Austrian and German consumers. Correspondingly, Austrian and German consumers feel significantly less confused by over-choice of apparel offerings than French consumers. To that effect, in terms of country of origin being a characteristic that impacts fashion consumption, findings prove that French consumers value national heritage of clothing more than Austrian and German consumers. Indeed, they tend to also pay more attention to buying apparel that originates from the home country. Outcomes further pinpoint that compared to Austrian and German consumers, Americans and French utilize fashion significantly more to make a positive impression on others, feel socially belonging and accepted as well as to be part of a reference group. In contrast to Austrians and Germans, Americans are more likely to adjust their wardrobe to the specific expectations and norms of their working environments. In addition, results indicate that French consumers devote more consideration towards dressing in accordance to their job conventions than Austrian and German consumers. Interestingly, Austrian and German consumers value physical vanity significantly more than American and French consumers. French consumers, however, employ fashion the most as a means of boosting satisfaction with one´s self-image, compared to the other research nations. Detailed results of the empirical study will be thoroughly discussed in the presentation in order to explicitly highlight specific common and divergent archetypes and patterns between the research countries. Additionally, final key outcomes, in-depth implications as well as limitations and directions for future research will be addressed in the conference.

This study understood what effect was produced on the purchasing decision making of outdoor wear by a shopping orientation, fashion involvement and demographic characteristics offered practical suggestions as to what effect was produced on the store selection criteria, product selection criteria for purchasing decision making in purchasing outdoor wear. This research was conducted through a questionnaire survey, and 397 males in were collected for analysis. The results were as follows. First, shopping orientation group was classified into hedonic shopping orientation group and utilitarian shopping orientation group. And it was classified into high fashion involvement group and low fashion involvement group according to fashion involvement. Product selection criteria were classified into 2 factors such as intrinsic attributes and extrinsic attributes. And store selection criteria were classified into 4 factors such as store atmosphere, store environment, promotion and salesmen. Second, there was partly significant difference in product selection criteria, and store selection criteria between utilitarian shopping group and hedonic shopping group. Third, there was significant difference in product selection criteria and store selection criteria between high fashion involvement group and low fashion involvement group. Finally, there was significant difference in the and according to age, job, and income among demographic characteristics.

본 연구의 목적은 계획행동이론을 적용하여 양양송이축제 방문객들의 축제 방문 의사결과정을 알아보기 위한 것이다. 이를 위하여 구조방정식 모형을 이용하여 방문동기의 구조적 관계를 알아보고자 하였다. 계획행동이론에 대한 분석 결과 지각된 행동통제감은 행동의도에 가장 큰 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났고, 태도 또한 행동의도에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 하지만 주관적 규범은 행동의도에 유의미한 영향을 미치지 못하는 것으로 나타났다. 이러한 결과는 행동의도와 관련된 축제 방문객들의 의사결정 과정과 연구와 양양송이 축제의 지속가능한 발전에 의미 있는 시사점을 제시할 것으로 기대된다.

본 연구에서는 팔로워십이 리더의의사결정방식 중 참여적 의사결정과 권한위임에 미치는 영향에 대 해 알아보고자 하며, 그 매커니즘을 밝히기 위해 LMX를 매개변수로 설정하고 있다. 기존 연구들을 살펴 보면 팔로워십에 관한 다양한 연구가 진행되어 왔으나 팔로워십이 리더에게 미치는 영향에 관한 연구는 찾아보기 어려운 실정이다. 이에 본 연구에서는 팔로워와 리더를 구분하는 가장 중요한 요인으로서 리더 의 의사결정권을 상정하여 팔로워십이 이에 영향을 미칠 수 있는지를 알아보고자 한다. 즉 팔로워의 의사결정과정에의 참여는 리더의 의지에 달려있다고 보는 기존 관련 연구들과는 달리 본 연구에서는 리더가 팔로워의 행동(팔로워십)에 따라 팔로워를 의사결정과정에 참여시키거나 의사결정권을 팔로워에게 위임 할 것이라는 가정에 기초하여 가설을 도출하고 있다. 연구결과 팔로워십 중 독립적·비판적 사고는 LMX와 참여적 의사결정, 권한위임에 유의한 영향을 미치 지 못하는 것으로 나타났다. 반면 팔로워십 중 적극적 참여는 LMX를 매개로 참여적 의사결정에는 완전 매개효과를, 권한위임에는 부분매개효과를 갖는 것으로 나타났다. 이러한 연구결과는 팔로워가 리더의영향을 받기만 하는 수동적인 존재라는 기존의 시각과 반대되는 결과이다. 즉 팔로워는 리더의 영향을 받을 뿐만 아니라 리더에게도 영향을 미치는 주체적이고 능동적인 존재가 될 수 있다는 점을 시사하고 있다.

A CCTV inspection method has been widely used to assess sewer condition and performance, but Korea lacks a proper decision support system for prioritizing sewer repair and rehabilitation (R&R). The objective of this paper is to introduce the results that we have developed in the Sewer Condition Assessment and Rehabilitation Decision-making (SCARD) Program using MS-EXCEL. The SCARD-Program is based on a standardized defect score for sewer structural and hydraulic assessment. Priorities are ranked based on risk scores, which are calculated by multiplying the sewer severity scores by the environmental impacts. This program is composed of three parts, which are decision-making for sewer condition and performance assessment, decision-making for sewer R&R priority assessment, and decision-making for optimal budget allocation. The SCARD-Program is useful for decision-makers, as it enables them to assess the sewer condition and to prioritize sewer R&R within the limited annual budget. In the future, this program logic will applied to the GIS-based sewer asset management system in local governments.

A combined treatment system using multiple source water is becoming important as an alternative to conventional water supply for small-scale water systems. In this research, combined water treatment systems were investigated for simultaneous use of multi-source water including rainwater, ground water, river water, and reclaimed wastewater. A laboratory-scale system was developed to systematically compare various combinations of water treatment processes, including sand filtration, microfiltration (MF), granular activated carbon (GAC), and nanofiltration (NF). Results showed that the efficiency of combined water treatment systems was affected by the quality of feed waters. In addition, a simply approach based on the concept of linear combination was suggested to support a decision-making for the optimum water treatment systems with the consideration of final water quality.

본 연구의 목적은 해양경찰의 현장지휘체계에 대한 문제점과 원인을 밝히는 것이다. 해양재난 발생현장에서 현장지휘관이 합리적인 의사결정을 할 것이라는 기대가능성에 대해 매우 부정적인 결론을 도출하였고, 여러 관점의 문제점을 연구하였다. 해양사고 대응 조직체계와 같은 구조적인 측면뿐만 아니라 의사결정과 같은 비구조적인 측면을 이론과 분석을 통해 비효율적인 조직체계, 합리적인 의사결정의 실패, 현장과의 소통 부족과 같은 문제점을 밝혀냈으며, 선진형 현장 지휘체계의 모색, 효율적인 조직, 전문인력의 양성, 개방적인 조직문화의 조성과 같은 대안들을 제시하였다.

The conventional clustering approaches are mostly based on minimizing total dissimilarity of input and output. However, the clustering approach may not be helpful in some cases of clustering decision making units (DMUs) with production feature converting multiple inputs into multiple outputs because it does not care converting functions. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) has been widely applied for efficiency estimation of such DMUs since it has non-parametric characteristics. We propose a new clustering method to identify groups of DMUs that are similar in terms of their input-output profiles. A real world example is given to explain the use and effectiveness of the proposed method. And we calculate similarity value between its result and the result of a conventional clustering method applied to the example. After the efficiency value was added to input of K-means algorithm, we calculate new similarity value and compare it with the previous one.

세월호 침몰사고 초기에 신속하고 효과적인 구조대응 실패에 대한 원인 중 하나로 현장지휘관의 판단실패를 지적하고 있다. 아직까지 최종적인 사고원인분석결과가 나오지는 않았으나 사고현장에서의 초동대응은 피해를 최소화하는데 제일 중요한 요소이다. 바다는 육지에 비해 위험성, 고립성, 제한된 정보, 전통적인 바다라는 권위적 조직문화 속에서 현장지휘관들은 신속한 의사결정을 내려야 한다. 지금도 바다에서는 많은 사고가 발생하고 있다.

본 연구는 상사의 윤리적 리더십이 부하의 윤리적 의사결정 의도에 미치는 영향과 조직 분위기의 조절 효과를 검증하였다. 자료의 수집은 충청남ㆍ북도, 대전시 소재 제조업의 총무부서, 자재조달부서, 회계부서의 구성원을 대상으로 2013년 10월 1일부터 동년 동월 30일까지 295명에 대하여 조사하였다. 본 연구의 결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 상사의 윤리적 리더십이 부하의 윤리적 의사결정간에 유효한 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 조직 분위기의 이기주의는 상사의 윤리적 리더십이 윤리적 의사결정 의도에 미치는 영향에 있어 유의한 부(-)의 조절효과가 있으며, 원칙주의는 상사의 윤리적 리더십이 윤리적 의사결정 의도에 유의한 정(+)의 조절효과가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 따라서 기업의 리더는 자신의 윤리적 행동과 의사결정 과정의 윤리성을 다시 점검하여 부하에게 매력적이고 모범적인 역할 모델이 될 수 있도록 노력해야 하며, 부하와의 의사소통을 통해 윤리적 행동의 필요성을 인식시키고 명확한 윤리적 기준을 수립하여 보상과 통제를 해야 할 것이다. 이러한 윤리적 리더십이 정착되면 부하의 윤리적 의사결정을 향상시킬 수 있을 것이다. 또한 모든 구성원이 공감하고 공유할 수 있는 가치기준이나 행동규범이 정립되고 윤리성이 높은 조직 분위기를 조성하는 것이 구성원의 윤리적 의사결정을 높이는 지름길이라고 할 수 있다.