Despite the growing interest in the role of first language (L1) in English-medium instruction (EMI) contexts, few studies have examined how L1 instruction influences learners’ writing beliefs, motivation, and perceptions of instructional languages. This study investigates the effects of genre-based L1 writing instruction on core writing beliefs among Korean university students in relation to their motivational orientations and perceptions of Koreans’ role within a broader EMI context. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining questionnaire data from 140 university students with eight semi-structured interviews. The results showed that following the writing instruction, students’ beliefs about key writing skills shifted, with greater emphasis placed on textual structure and logical organization. Alongside these changes, both intrinsic and extrinsic writing motivation increased by the end of the course. Notably, extrinsic motivation was strongly correlated with students’ perceptions of the instructional languages (English and Korean). Qualitative findings further highlighted the importance of meaningful L1 writing experiences and the role of English as a disciplinary language in engineering education. These findings underscore the pedagogical and policy relevance of strategically incorporating L1 instruction to enhance the effectiveness of EMI in higher education.

Tactical data link (TDL) is one of the key means for enabling real-time exchange of tactical information among weapon systems operated by the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Most messages consist of position information of participating nodes, with latitude and longitude fields designed to enable worldwide operation. Given the limited operational area of Korean army, enabling worldwide operation requires an excessive number of data bits, which cause data overhead and reduced network efficiency. Therefore, in this paper, we investigate the current coordinate transmission methods used in TDL and propose a relative coordinate-based transmission scheme within a designated area to enhance network efficiency. The proposed method is optimized for the operational characteristics of the Korean military and improves both network efficiency and positional accuracy compared to existing TDL.

The adoption of generative artificial intelligence (AI) has attracted growing attention across industries due to its potential to transform organizational processes and value creation. Despite its high applicability, however, the diffusion of generative AI in the telecommunications industry remains limited. Existing studies have largely focused on identifying individual barriers to AI adoption, providing insufficient understanding of how these barriers interact and form a complex hierarchy of constraints. Addressing this gap, this study investigates the structural interrelationships among barriers to generative AI adoption in the telecommunications industry. Based on a comprehensive literature review and expert validation, fifteen key barriers were identified. Using a Delphi-based Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) approach, this study examined the hierarchical influence structure among the barriers. Subsequently, the Matrix Impact Cross-reference Multiplication Applied to Classification (MICMAC) technique was employed to classify the barriers according to their driving power and dependence. The results reveal a four-level hierarchical structure in which environmental barriers play a foundational role. In particular, the absence of alignment in institutional frameworks and technical standards emerges as a root-level barrier exerting strong influence on higher-level constraints. Regulatory uncertainty and concerns about job displacement function as independent drivers linking foundational environmental conditions to execution- level constraints. Most technical, organizational, and economic barriers are concentrated at the intermediate level, forming a highly interdependent execution layer. At the top level, delays and uncertainties in decision-making regarding generative AI adoption appear as outcome-oriented barriers resulting from the cumulative effects of lower-level constraints. By highlighting that barriers to generative AI adoption in the telecommunications industry operate as a structurally connected system rather than isolated factors, this study extends existing adoption research through a structural perspective. The findings provide practical insights for telecommunications firms in prioritizing adoption strategies and offer implications for addressing institutional and regulatory conditions that shape the diffusion of generative AI.

본 연구는 국내 정원 조성 및 식물 수급 여건을 반영하여 도입 된 한국 우수정원식물(KGM Plants)의 선정 및 평가 체계를 분석하고, 그 제도적 의의의 고찰을 목적으로 한다. 기존 국내 정원식물 추천 자료는 작성 주체의 선별 목록에 머물러 있었으 며, 명확한 평가 기준과 절차에 기반한 선정 체계는 부재하였다. 이에 한국정원협회는 영국 RHS의 AGM 제도를 참조하여 대중 성, 적응성, 정체성, 관상성의 네 가지 평가 항목을 설정하고, 국가표준식물목록 14,695종을 대상으로 단계적 심의를 통해 2024년 300종, 2025년 500종의 KGM Plants를 발표하였 다. KGM Plants는 재배품종(50%), 자생식물(30%), 도입식물 (20%)의 구성 비율을 명시적으로 설정하고, 정기적 증보와 갱신 이 가능한 구조를 구축하였다. 본 연구는 KGM Plants가 국내 최초로 정원식물 평가를 제도화한 사례임을 밝히고, 향후 객관 성과 투명성을 강화하기 위한 개선 방향을 제시한다.

This study investigated rater effects in the ICNALE Global Rating Archives (GRA), which contain ratings from 160 raters on 140 speeches and 140 essays across 10 rating criteria. After cleaning the raw dataset, two separate three-facet partial credit models were fitted to the speech and essay datasets to examine rater consistency, and a bias analysis was conducted to investigate the relationship between raters’ prior rating experience and severity. The results indicated that six raters in the speech ratings exhibited overly inconsistent rating patterns, but no rater in the essay ratings did. It was also found that raters’ prior rating experience was significantly associated with the complexity, involvement, and accuracy criteria in the speech ratings and with the complexity criterion in the essay ratings. However, the corresponding effect sizes for these interactions were trivial, indicating limited practical impact. The educational implication is that rigorous rater training could enhance rater consistency among both pre-service and less-experienced in-service English teachers in speaking and writing assessment.

This study investigated the photosynthetic responses of the CAM ornamental plant Schlumbergera truncata ‘Pink Dew’ under low-temperature greenhouse conditions to evaluate the potential for energy-saving cultivation. Greenhouse production requires substantial energy for heating, and reducing temperature is a possible strategy to save energy. However, low temperatures can suppress photosynthesis and plant growth. CAM plants, which absorb CO2 mainly at night, may respond differently to temperature, making it important to determine temperature ranges that maintain carbon assimilation while reducing energy use. Plants were grown in a greenhouse at average temperatures of 15/11°C (January, early flowering) and 21/12°C (March, late flowering). Gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), and growth characteristics were measured, with comparisons made between top and second phylloclades. Results showed that during the early-flowering period, total net CO2 uptake was negative, indicating suppressed carbon assimilation under low temperature. During the late-flowering period, net CO2 uptake became positive, suggesting recovery of photosynthetic activity as temperatures increased. The second phylloclades generally exhibited higher CO2 uptake than the top phylloclades. The maximum quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm) increased from early to late flowering but remained below optimal values, indicating that plants experienced low temperature stress but maintained moderate photosynthetic function, suggesting some degree of acclimation. Morphological observations showed phylloclade discoloration and occasional lesions, which were consistent with symptoms of cold stress, although plants continued to grow and produce flower buds. Overall, the results indicate that low temperatures below the optimal range can suppress photosynthesis in S. truncata, but the plants retain a capacity for acclimation and recovery. These findings contribute to understanding the temperature sensitivity of CAM photosynthesis and may help define energy-saving temperature strategies in greenhouse cultivation.

This study examines the operational performance of a Manufacturing Execution System (MES)-based smart factory and presents a case study to provide practical insights for the effective adoption of smart factories by small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Korea. While Industry 4.0 and Korea’s Manufacturing Innovation 3.0 policy have accelerated the digital transformation of manufacturing sites, the emerging paradigm of Industry 5.0 places greater emphasis on human-centricity, sustainability, and resilience. The case company, S Corporation, is a mid-sized automotive parts manufacturer that implemented an MES-based integrated platform encompassing production management, materials management through a Warehouse Management System (WMS), quality management via a Quality Management System (QMS), and equipment management. This integration enabled real-time monitoring and control of shop-floor operations, thereby enhancing data-driven decision-making. The case analysis, supported by a review of related literature, identifies significant quantitative improvements, including increased productivity, reduced defect rates, shorter lead times, and improved inventory turnover. In addition, several qualitative benefits were observed, such as enhanced process visibility, operational standardization, faster managerial decision-making, and a reduced workload for shop-floor operators. Overall, this study demonstrates a smart factory operational model that integrates the technological foundations of Industry 4.0 with the value-oriented principles of Industry 5.0. The findings provide meaningful implications for SMEs seeking to achieve sustainable and human-centered digital transformation in manufacturing.

This study examined the 2022 Revised National Curriculum of Korea and Englishrelated policy documents through a critical discourse analytic lens, with particular focus on how language ideologies surrounding English education are discursively constructed and legitimised. The analysis demonstrates that the curriculum operates as a site of relegitimation and stabilisation in which English is discursively rearticulated as necessary, desirable, and governable under conditions of reform. Through intersecting discourses of future uncertainty, global communication, competency-based education, and inclusion, the curriculum constructs English as adaptive linguistic capital for an unpredictable future, moralises it as a marker of ethical global citizenship, and renders it measurable through standardised curricular technologies. In doing so, the policy stabilises standard language ideology while presenting itself as progressive, internationalised, and inclusive. This configuration exemplifies how reform discourse enables continuity in language ideology and linguistic stratification under the guise of innovation. These findings suggest that educational reforms frequently reproduce dominant ideologies through recontextualisation rather than transformation.

A survey was conducted on the main activities and profit-generating businesses of seven agricultural associations based in the Ecuadorian Andes region. The key resources of these associations are as follows: Virgen del Volcán de Lloa: high-quality organic products include barley, wheat, and quinoa from San Antonio de Valencia, which also boasts good genetic resources of cattle for breeding and association-owned land; Agropapa: native potato varieties and a chip processing facility; Asoagroquero: a store selling agricultural supplies, including pesticides, to local farmers; Mushuk Yuyay: production of flour made from quinoa, lupine, barley, wheat, faba bean, and pea; Corpopuruwa: certified seed production of Andean crops under the association’s own brand; Asorprosariv: uniquely devised grain-based beverages and cookies. This study presents the cases of farmers’ associations in the Ecuadorian Andes region that add value to agricultural products and engage in various profit-generating businesses by producing and selling high-quality agricultural products utilizing local native crops.

목적 : 본 연구의 목적은 시각장애 청소년의 일상생활활동에 대한 경험과 어려움을 탐색하여 작업치료가 필요한 주요 영역을 파악하고, 작업치료에 대한 인식 수준을 확인함으로써 향후 작업치료 서비스 제공을 위한 기초자료를 마련하는 데 있다. 방법 : 2023년 8월 15일부터 10월 31일까지 계통추출방식을 통해 선정된 시각장애 청소년 6명을 대상으로 반 구조화된 심층면담을 실시하였다. 면담은 작업치료 실행체계 4판에 근거한 기본적 일상생활활동, 수단적 일상생활 활동, 작업치료 인식으로 구성하여 총 4회기, 회기당 60분씩 진행하였다. 수집된 자료는 현상학적 연구방법인 콜라 이지(Colaizzi)의 분석 방법을 적용하였으며, 질적 연구의 신뢰도와 엄밀성을 확보하기 위해 질적 연구 보고 지침 (COREQ: Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research)을 준수하였다. 결과 : 시각장애 청소년은 기본적 일상생활활동에서 시각 보상과 환경수정을 통해 수행이 가능하였으나, 타인의 인식으로 인해 심리적 위축을 경험하였다. 수단적 일상생활활동에서는 대부분의 영역에서 어려움을 보고하였으나, 전자기기와 소프트웨어를 활용해 일부 활동의 어려움을 보완하고 있었다. 작업치료에 대한 인식은 전반적으로 낮았 으며, 재활서비스는 중증 장애인을 위한 것이라는 인식이 나타났다. 결론 : 시각장애 청소년은 일상생활활동 전반에서 다양한 어려움을 경험함에도 불구하고 작업치료에 대한 인식 은 낮은 수준이었다. 작업치료 서비스 접근성 향상과 적극적인 정보 제공을 통해 시각장애 청소년을 위한 작업치료 서비스의 확대가 필요함을 시사한다.

The Vietnamese government has been fostering an enabling environment for vertical integration within t he rice v alue c hain t hrough c ontract farming (CF) to enhance value chains, improve product quality, and increase farmers’ incomes. While previous studies have explored the impacts of CF participation versus non-participation, there is limited evidence on the differing effects of specific CF types. This study addresses self-selection bias using propensity score matching (PSM) to evaluate and compare the effects of two CF types―indirect contract farming (CF-I) and direct contract farming (CF-D)―on rice farmers’ income and yield in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. Data were collected from 437 rice farmers across three provinces: Can Tho, An Giang, and Hau Giang. The findings indicate that participation in contract farming is not scale-neutral; CF-D tends to benefit larger-scale farmers. Additionally, farmers involved in CF-I experienced higher yields and incomes compared to non-CF farmers, with yield increases ranging from 0.44 to 0.76 tons/ha and income increases from 7.48 to 8.99 million VND/ha. Farmers participating in CF-D saw income increases of 5.04 to 5.54 million VND/ha, but the change in yield was not statistically significant. Moreover, those involved in CF-I had both higher yields and incomes than those engaging in CF-D. This study provides comparative evidence on the effects of different CF types in the rice sector and suggests that scaling up CF, particularly CF-I, can effectively enhance farmers’ yields and incomes.

본 연구는 국내 화훼 장식 종사자와 소비자를 대상으로 일반 플로랄폼과 친환경 플로랄폼에 대한 인지도, 이용 현황, 인식 및 행동 의도, 프리미엄 가격 수용성을 비교 분석하여 지속 가능 한 화훼 산업으로의 전환 가능성을 탐색하였다. 총 430명(화훼 장식 종사자 208명, 소비자 222명)을 대상으로 실시한 설문 조사 결과, 일반 플로랄폼에 대한 인지도는 종사자 99%, 소비자 91%로 높았으며, 이용 경험도 각각 92%, 84%였다. 반면 친환 경 플로랄폼의 인지도는 종사자(64%)보다 소비자(17%)가 낮았 으며, 이용 경험은 각각 26%, 10%에 불과하였다. 일반 플로랄 폼에 대하여 종사자는 익숙한 방식(4.13, Likert 5점 척도)을 가장 긍정적으로 평가하였으며, 사용의 편리성에 대해서도 종사 자(4.05)와 소비자(4.00) 모두 긍정적으로 인식하였다. 친환경 플로랄폼에 대해서는 두 집단 모두 환경 보호에 기여(종사자 4.28, 소비자 4.61)를 가장 긍정적으로 인식하였으나, 높은 가 격 부담은 종사자(4.20)와 소비자(3.88) 모두에게 공통적으로 나타난 부정적 인식이었다. 현재 시중에서 사용되는 일반 플로 랄폼은 페놀-포름알데히드 기반 제품(phenol-formaldehyde floral foam, PFF)으로, 종사자(4.32)와 소비자(4.23) 모두 PFF의 환경 유해성에 대해 높게 인식하였다. PFF를 대체할 친 환경 제품에 대한 사용 및 구매 의향은 종사자(4.16)와 소비자 (4.33) 모두 높게 나타났다. 친환경 플로랄폼의 프리미엄 가격 수용성은 소비자(67%)가 종사자(43%)보다 높았으나, 실제 추 가 지불·인상률에서는 소비자의 81%가 5% 이하를 선택한 반 면, 종사자의 51%는 10% 이상 인상을 선택하였다. 본 연구 결과는 친환경 플로랄폼 사용 확산을 위해 국내 화훼 장식 종사 자와 소비자를 대상으로 한 인식 제고 교육과 홍보의 필요성을 제시하며, 지속 가능한 화훼 산업으로의 전환을 위한 기초 자료 로 활용될 수 있을 것이다.

In canine solid tumors, genetic alterations are crucial for initiating and advancing tumor growth, leading to modifications in the originating tissue and shaping the tumor’s developmental course. Structural variants, including inversions, deletions, and translocations, are hallmarks of most cancer genomes and are causatively linked to tumorigenesis. Histopathology was used to confirm tumor type, while structural genomic alterations were identified through whole-genome sequencing. The examination of 4 tumors and 52 normal whole-genome sequences enabled a precise exploration of the genetic foundations of solid tumor biology, particularly the pattern of somatic structural variation. Structural variants in tumor samples were predominantly found in genes involved in the RTK–Ras–MEK–ERK signaling pathway, as well as in those regulating apoptosis and cell survival. Among the structural variants discovered, the detection of STARD4 in the solid tumor group, which is related to cholesterol regulation, indicates a potential common pathway in tumorigenesis. This research highlights the genetic intricacy of tumors and underscores the importance of personalized strategies for diagnosis and prognosis, employing comprehensive genetic profiling.

This study explores the use of Midjourney (V6) by fashion design undergraduates for AI-supported ideation, focusing on how outcomes differ based on fashion-domain competence and prompt/parameter instruction. A focused ethnographic, comparative case-study design was used to observe a short collection-development module. Data included Discord prompt and parameter logs, generated image outputs (mood boards, look proposals, and pattern drafts), one-on-one interviews, classroom observation notes, and expert co-coding and qualitative evaluation. Participants were organized into four groups by crossing Basic vs. Advanced Fashion competence (BF/AF) with Basic vs. Advanced Prompt training (BP/AP): BF-BP, AF-BP, BF-AP, and AF-AP. BF-BP depended on repetitive/imaginary use and generic descriptors, resulting in visually appealing yet conceptually fragmented and low-feasibility results. AF-BP leveraged a richer domain vocabulary to improve item-level adequacy but struggled to maintain collection-level consistency, leading to the use of external editing tools such as Photoshop and Illustrator for portfolio-level refinement. BF-AP quickly mastered commands and parameters (e.g., /describe, --chaos, --stylize, --ar, --tile, --no, --sref, --cref), generating appealing concept imagery while failing to convert outputs into wearable garments and cohesive collections. AF-AP combined advanced fashion knowledge with strategic parameter sequencing— broad exploration, followed by consistency control and selective refinement—achieving the most coherent, feasible outcomes and positioning AI as an early-stage accelerator rather than a substitute for core design and making skills. Overall, this study proposes “parameter literacy” as a domain-specific extension of GenAI literacy and offers a parameter–process mapping (divergent generation, consistency control, and editing/refinement) to enhance fashion curricula.

This study compares the microstructure and properties of pure Cu and Cu-5 wt.% Al2O3 composites fabricated by spark plasma sintering under strictly identical processing conditions at 800-1000°C. Pure Cu samples achieved near-full densification and exhibited a bimodal grain structure dominated by coarse grains with increasing sintering temperature. In contrast, the composite samples showed lower density and non-monotonic densification behavior, with a minimum relative density at 900°C and significantly refined equiaxed grains due to strong grain-boundary pinning by nano Al2O3 particles. The higher fractions of high-angle boundaries and pronounced orientation disruption were observed in the composite samples, while high-resolution analysis confirmed the presence of grain-boundary Al2O3-rich regions that restricted Cu grain coalescence and continuity of grain boundary migration. X-ray diffraction results confirmed the absence of reaction phases in both materials. Hardness peaked at 900°C for both samples, and the composite samples showed consistently lower hardness due to retained porosity. The apparent electrical conductivity of the composite displays a non-linear temperature dependence, reflecting the competing influences of densification, microstructural recovery, and the insulating nature of Al2O3.

This study examines the appearance characteristics of collars produced through fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing by analyzing the interaction between collar types and infill structures. Three collar types-stand, convertible, and shirt-and three infill structures-rectilinear, gyroid, and honeycomb-were selected to generate nine collar samples. All samples were modeled in CLO 2025 with identical base dimensions and printed under consistent FDM settings using TPU filament to ensure comparable structural conditions. Appearance evaluations were conducted by 12 experts in garment construction and fashion design through an online survey on the naturalness and visual quality of each collar using a 5-point Likert scale. The findings revealed that the optimal infill structure varied depending on collar type. The stand collar exhibited stable appearance evaluations across all infill structures, with the gyroid structure receiving the highest evaluations. The convertible collar showed the greatest sensitivity to infill structure, with the rectilinear infill structure producing the highest ratings for both naturalness and visual quality. The shirt collar demonstrated the lowest scores overall due to its structural complexity; however, the honeycomb structure was relatively more suitable. ANOVA results confirmed statistically significant differences among collar types for the rectilinear and gyroid structures, but not the honeycomb structure. This study provides empirical evidence that internal geometry plays a critical role in determining the silhouette quality of 3D-printed garment components. The results offer practical guidelines for selecting infill structures tailored to specific collar shapes and contribute foundational insights toward the development of modular, seamless garment systems.

We present the result from a comprehensive laboratory and on-sky characterization of the commercial spectrograph system consisting of a PIXIS 1300BX charge-coupled device (CCD) camera and an IsoPlane 320A spectrograph as part of the preparation of the forthcoming all-sky spectroscopic survey of nearby galaxies (A-SPEC). In the laboratory, we have quantified readout noise, dark current, gain, and full-well capacity via bias, dark, and photon transfer curve analysis at all acquisition modes. To do that, we have developed a gradient correction technique to address row-dependent signal gradients in the image, which are caused by the shutter-less condition of our CCD camera test setup. The technique successfully reproduces the values in the manufacturer specifications. We also have measured quantum efficiency exceeding 80% from 400–800 nm and ≳ 90% between 450–750 nm, with sub-second persistence decay, making it ideal for rapid, multi-object spectroscopy. Using a set of diffraction gratings (150, 300, and 600 grmm−1), we have evaluated the spatial separability of multiple spectra and spectral resolution. We have conducted a test observation with this spectrograph system at the Seoul National University Astronomical Observatory (SAO) 1 m telescope and successfully demonstrated its capability of multi-object spectroscopy with moderate resolution of R ≈ 600–2600. We release all Python codes for the test and recipes to facilitate further instrument evaluations.

Background: Pressure biofeedback may facilitate selective rotator cuff activation during shoulder external rotation, but training effects and structural changes are unclear. Objectives: To examine the effects of a 4-week external rotation program with pressure biofeedback on shoulder muscle activity and rotator cuff thickness. Design: Quasi-experimental design. Methods: Thirty healthy adults were randomized to experimental (n=15) or control (n=15). Both performed seated external rotation at 30° with an elastic band (3×12 reps, 4 sessions/week, 4-week); the biofeedback group maintained 40 mmHg scapular adduction pressure. Surface EMG (%MVIC) and ultrasound muscle thickness were assessed pre/post. Paired and independent t-tests were used (α=.05). Results: In the experimental group, teres minor and infraspinatus activity increased, whereas middle and posterior deltoid activity decreased (P<.05). Post-intervention, rotator cuff activity was higher and posterior deltoid activity was lower versus control (P<.05). Muscle thickness showed no significant changes. Conclusions: A 4-week pressure biofeedback training program changed muscle activation during shoulder external rotation by increasing rotator cuff activation and decreasing compensatory deltoid activity. These findings indicate meaningful neuromuscular adaptations during the external rotation task.

Background: Palpation tenderness is a clinically relevant indicator of musculoskeletal pain, yet differences in immediate analgesic response among commonly used physiotherapeutic modalities remain unclear in real-world clinical settings. Objectives: To compare the immediate changes in pressure pain threshold (PPT) among patients who received extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), interferential current therapy (ICT), or magnetotherapy (MT) as part of routine physical therapy care. Design: Retrospective clinical data analysis using a pre–post intervention comparison. Methods: A total of 105 patient records were retrospectively reviewed. Cases were categorized into ESWT, ICT, or MT based on the device modality documented in the electronic medical records (EMR). PPT was assessed immediately before and after treatment. Within-category changes were analyzed using paired t-tests. Because changes in PPT scores violated normality assumptions, between-category comparisons were performed using the Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn–Bonferroni post-hoc procedures. Results: ESWT produced the greatest immediate improvement in pressure pain (d<1.2, P<.001), demonstrating significantly larger reductions compared with ICT (d<.8, P<.01) and MT(d<.2, P>.05). Changes in PPT after ICT and MT did not differ significantly (P>.05). Conclusion: ESWT produced the greatest immediate reduction in palpation tenderness, outperforming both ICT and MT. ICT demonstrated moderate improvement, whereas MT showed minimal change. These findings suggest that ESWT may be the most effective modality for rapid short-term pain modulation in musculoskeletal clinical practice.

With the increasing demand for flexible electronic devices, smaller and lighter flexible supercapacitors have gained significant research attention. Among the various materials, self-supporting reduced graphene oxide (rGO) paper has emerged as one of the most promising electrode materials for supercapacitors due to its low cost, high chemical/thermal stability, and excellent electrical conductivity. Nevertheless, a major drawback of rGO paper is the limited ion diffusion between stacked rGO layers, hindering the effective formation of electrochemical double-layer at the electrode/electrolyte interface. In this study, we prepared the rGO paper derived from ball-milled followed-by water oxidation process for reducing the sheet size. The smaller-sized rGO sheets facilitated ion transport between graphene layers, promoting efficient electric double-layer formation. Moreover, the increased presence of edge planes in ball-milled rGO sheets achieved high capacitance, further enhancing the performance of rGO as an electrode material. Notably, the 2-BMOX rGO paper obtained from ball-milling and wet-oxidized graphite exhibited a capacitance of 117.9 F/g in cyclic voltammetry (CV) and 128.6 F/g in galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) tests, approximately twice that of conventional rGO. Additionally, the capacitance retained 91% of its initial performance after 2,000 cycles, indicating excellent cycling stability.