The demand for chiller equipment that keeps each machine at a constant temperature to maintain the best possible condition is growing rapidly. PID (Proportional Integral Derivation) control is a popular temperature control method. The error, which is the difference between the desired target value and the current system output value, is calculated and used as an input to the system using a proportional, integrator, and differentiator. Through such a closed-loop configuration, a desired final output value of the system can be reached using only the target value and the feedback signal. Furthermore, various temperature control methods have been devised as the control performance of various high-performance equipment becomes important. Therefore, it is necessary to design for accurate data-driven temperature control for chiller equipment. In this research, support vector regression is applied to the classic PID control for accurate temperature control. Simulated annealing is applied to find optimal PID parameters. The results of the proposed control method show fast and effective control performance for chiller equipment.

Research is being actively conducted on the continuous thin plate casting method, which is used to manufacture magnesium alloy plate for plastic processing. This study applied a heat transfer solidification analysis method to the melt drag process. The heat transfer coefficient between the molten magnesium alloy metal and the roll in the thin plate manufacturing process using the melt drag method has not been clearly established until now, and the results were used to determine the temperature change. The estimated heat transfer coefficient for a roll speed of 30 m/min was 1.33 × 105 W/m2·K, which was very large compared to the heat transfer coefficient used in the solidification analysis of general aluminum castings. The heat transfer coefficient between the molten metal and the roll estimated in the range of the roll speed of 5 to 90 m/min was 1.42 × 105 to 8.95 × 104 W/m2·K. The cooling rate was calculated using a method based on the results of deriving the temperature change of the molten metal and the roll, using the estimated heat transfer coefficient. The DAS was estimated from the relationship between the cooling rate and DAS, and compared with the experimental value. When the magnesium alloy is manufactured by the melt drag method, the cooling rate of the thin plate is in the range of about 1.4 × 103 to 1.0 × 104 K/s.

The overall process, from the pre-treatment of aluminum substrates to the eco-friendly neutral electroless Ni-P plating process, was observed, compared, and analysed. To remove the surface oxide layer on the aluminum substrate and aid Ni-P plating, a zincation process was carried out. After the second zincation treatment, it was confirmed that a mostly uniform Zn layer was formed and the surface oxide of aluminum was also removed. The Ni-P electroless plating films were formed on the secondary zincated aluminum substrate using electroless plating solutions of pH 4.5 and neutral pH 7.0, respectively, while changing the plating bath temperature. When a neutral pH7.0 electroless solution was used, the Ni-P plating layer was uniformly formed even at the plating bath temperature of 50 oC, and the plating speed was remarkably increased as the bath temperature was increased. On the other hand, when a pH 4.5 Ni-P electroless solution was used, a Ni-P plating film was not formed at a plating bath temperature of 50 oC, and the plating speed was very slow compared to pH 7.0, although plating speed increased with increasing bath temperature. In the P contents, the P concentration of the neutral pH 7.0 Ni-P electroless plating layer was reduced by ~ 42.3 % compared to pH 4.5. Structurally, all of the Ni-P electroless plating layers formed in the pH 4.5 solution and the neutral (pH 7.0) solution had an amorphous crystal structure, as a Ni-P compound, regardless of the plating bath temperature.

Photosynthesis and respiration of seagrasses are mainly controlled by water temperature. In this study, the photosynthetic physiology and respiratory changes of the Asian surfgrass Phyllospadix japonicus, which is mainly distributed on the eastern and southern coasts of Korea, were investigated in response to changing water temperature (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30°C) by conducting mesocosm experiments. Photosynthetic parameters (maximum photosynthetic rate, Pmax; compensation irradiance, Ic; and saturation irradiance, Ik) and respiration rate of surfgrass increased with rising water temperature, whereas photosynthetic efficiency (α) was fairly constant among the water temperature conditions. The Pmax and Ik dramatically decreased under the highest water temperature condition (30°C), whereas the Ic and respiration rate increased continuously with the increasing water temperature. Ratios of maximum photosynthetic rates to respiration rates (Pmax : R ) were highest at 5°C and declined markedly at higher temperatures with the lowest ratio at 30°C. The minimum requirement of Hsat (the daily period of irradiancesaturated photosynthesis) of P. japonicus was 2.5 hours at 5°C and 10.6 hours at 30°C for the positive carbon balance. Because longer Hsat was required for the positive carbon balance of P. japonicus under the increased water temperature, the rising water temperature should have negatively affected the growth, distribution, and survival of P. japonicus on the coast of Korea. Since the temperature in the temperate coastal waters is rising gradually due to global warming, the results of this study could provide insights into surfgrass responses to future severe sea warming and light attenuation.

A strain of Alexandrium species was established by isolating cells from Jangmok Bay, Korea. Its morphology and molecular phylogeny based on LSU rRNA gene sequences were examined. In addition, growth responses of this Alexandrium species to changes in temperature, salinity, and nutrient concentrations were investigated. This Alexandrium species from Jangmok Bay had a ventral pore on the 1′, which was morphologically consistent with previously described Alexandrium tamarense and A. catenella. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that this isolate was assigned to A. pacificum (Group IV) within A. tamarense species complex. In growth experiments, relatively high growth rates and cell densities of A. pacificum (Group IV) were observed at 15°C and 20°C. This species also grew under a wide range of salinity. This indicates that this Korean isolate of A. pacificum (Group IV) is a stenothermic and euryhaline species. In growth responses to changes in nutrient levels, enhanced growth rates and cell densities of A. pacificum (Group IV) were observed with additions of nitrate and phosphate. In particular, rapid uptakes of phosphate by A. pacificum (Group IV) were observed in experimental treatments, indicating that the increase in phosphate concentration could stimulate the growth of A. pacificum (Group IV).

The effect of five different constant temperatures (18, 21, 24, 27, and 30±1°C) and a photoperiod of 14 : 10 (L : D) h on the reproduction parameters of Spodoptera frugiperda was studied. The longevity of adult female S. frugiperda decreased with increasing temperature (22.4 days at 21°C and 13.9 days at 30°C) but not at 18°C. The pre-oviposition period and oviposition period was the shortest at 30°C compared to the other temperatures. The total fecundity egg count was 887.4, 1,246.4, 1,348.9, 1,154.9, and 1,034.2 at 18, 21, 24, 27 and 30°C, respectively, during its life span. The survival rate of female S. frugiperda decreased rapidly after 13 days at 18°C, after 14 days at 21°C, after 15 days at 27°C, and after 9 days at 24°C, and 30°C. On the third day after the start of oviposition, 50% of the total fecundity was accomplished. In corn fields at less than the 10-leaf stage, the distribution of S. frugiperda egg masses was observed in the middle and lower plant regions, corresponding to 46.8% and 41.4% of the total egg masses, respectively. Egg masses were mostly found on the underside of the leaf blade (abaxial) of corn (66.7%). After releasing S. frugiperda adults on May 12, May 17, May 25, and May 30, the number of eggs per egg mass was 89.9, 88.5, 126.6, and 127.9, respectively. Egg masses of the subsequent generations of S. frugiperda were observed from late June, and the number of eggs per egg mass was 155.8 in late June, 270.7 in early July, and 303.5 in mid-July.

To investigate the tolerance limit and critical thermal maximum (CTM), behavioral responses of wild goldeye rockfish Sebastes thompsoni according to exposure to high water temperature were observed using a continuous behavior tracking system. As a result, behavioral index (BI) of S. thompsoni in each temperature (20.0, 25.0, and 30.0°C) showed a significant difference (p<0.05) when compared with the value measured in a stable condition of 15.0°C. The activity level of S. thompsoni exposed to 25.0°C decreased sharply after 20 hours. Their rest time at the bottom of experiment chamber increased, and their normal swimming and metabolic activities were disturbed. In addition, at a high water temperature of 30.0°C, S. thompsoni reached the limit of resistance and showed a sub-lethal reaction of swimming behavior, with energy consumption in the body increased and all test organisms died. In conclusion, the eco-physiological response of S. thompsoni to water temperature varied greatly depending on the fluctuation range of the exposed temperature and the exposure time. In addition, the tolerance limit of S. thompsoni to high water temperature was predicted to be 25.0- 30.0°C. The maximum critical thermal that had a great influence on the survival of this species was found to be around 30.0°C.

High-income mushroom crops require complex farming. Therefore, we conducted a test to identify the optimum temperature for the production of antler-shaped Ganoderma lucidum using the King Oyster mushroom cultivation facility. T-N showed 0.28% of oak sawdust and 2.2% of nutritional source. The pH of oak sawdust was 6.0, indicating weak acidity, and that of rice steel was 6.6, indicating neutrality in nutrition source. Study on the quality characteristics of mushrooms showed that the number of days at 25°C were 5~6 and those at 30°C were 3~5; the representative length at 25°C was 57.5 mm and that at 30°C was 92.2 mm; the biological weight at 25 °C was 43 g, which was greater than that at 30°C.

팥나방은 콩과작물 특히 팥을 가해하는 해충으로 알려져 있다. 본 연구는 팥나방의 생물적 특징을 알아보기 위해 발육단계별 발육기간, 성 충의 수명과 번식능력을 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34°C 항온조건에서 조사하였다. 알은 7°C와 34°C를 제외한 모든 항온조건에서 부화 하였고 유충은 13~28°C 온도조건에서 성공적으로 성충으로 발육하였다. 알의 발육기간은 25°C까지 온도가 상승할수록 짧아지다가 이후 온도 에서 길어지는 경향을 보였다. 유충, 번데기의 발육기간과 성충수명은 온도가 상승할수록 감소하였다. 팥나방 발육단계별 발육 최저, 최고 한계는 LRF와 SSI모델을 이용하여 계산하였고 발육영점온도와 유효적산온일도는 선형회귀분석을 이용하였다. 1령 유충 부화부터 성충출현까지의 발 육영점온도와 유효적산일은 9.1°C와 264.5DD였다. SSI모델을 이용한 부화부터 성충출현까지 발육최저 및 최고온도는 20.0°C과 32.3°C였고 이들간의 차이 즉 발육적정온도범위는 12.3°C였다. 온도와 관련된 팥나방 성충의 생존과 산란특성을 이용하여 산란모형을 작성하였다. 본 연구 에서 제시한 온도발육모형과 산란모형은 야외에서 팥나방의 개체군동태를 이해하고 콩과작물의 종합적인 해충군관리체계 확립에 기여할 것으로 보인다.

어리팥나방은 콩을 가해하는 Matsumuraeses속 해충으로 알려져 있다. 본 연구는 어리팥나방의 개체군동태를 예측하기 위하여 발육단계별 발육기간, 성충의 수명과 번식능력을 10, 13, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31°C 항온조건에서 조사하였다. 알은 조사된 모든 항온조건에서 부화하였고, 유충 은 10, 13, 31°C를 제외한 온도조건에서 성공적으로 성충으로 발육하였다. 발육단계별 발육기간과 성충 수명은 온도가 상승할수록 감소하였다. 어리팥나방 발육단계별 발육영점온도와 유효적산일은 선형회귀방법을 이용하여 추정하였고 발육최저, 최고한계는 LRF와 SSI모델을 이용하여 계산하였다. 1령 유충 부화부터 성충출현까지의 발육영점온도와 유효적산일은 10.2°C와 492.04DD였다. SSI모델을 이용한 부화부터 성충출현 까지 발육최저 및 최고온도는 16.7°C과 29.1°C였고 이들간의 차이 즉 발육적정온도범위는 12.4°C였다. 온도와 관련된 어리팥나방 성충의 생존 과 산란특성을 이용하여 산란모형을 작성하였다. 본 연구에서 제시한 온도발육모형과 산란모형은 어리팥나방의 개체군모형 작성과 콩 작물의 종 합적인 해충군관리체계 확립에 기여할 것으로 보인다.

우리나라의 수산 양식의 대부분이 이루어지는 연안과 내만에 최근 빈번한 고수온 현상으로 매년 막대한 양식 피해가 발생하고 있다. 2018년~2021년의 최근 4년간의 7월은 이례적인 고수온, 장마, 태풍 등에 의해 1990년 이후 수온의 연별 변동성이 1994년~1997년에 이 어 두 번째로 크게 나타났다. 동·서·남해의 대표적인 고수온 양식피해 우심해역(천수만, 가막만, 구룡포)에 대한 열속과 열수지 분석을 통 해 여름철 천수만과 가막만의 고수온 발생은 주로 대기로부터 해수면을 통한 열유입에 의한 것임을 확인하였다. 벌크식으로 계산한 순열 속과 수온변화로부터 계산한 해양 열 저장률로부터 4년간(2018년~2021년)의 7월 평균 해양 열 수송률을 추산한 결과, 서산 창리는 순열속 의 13.5 %, 여수 신월은 순열속의 62.3 %가 외부로 유출되는 것으로 계산되었다, 구룡포 하정은 순열속의 22.2 %가 평균적으로 외부로 유출 되는 것으로 평가되었으나, 냉수대 발생 유무에 따라 연도별로 해양 열 수송률이 순열속의 -174.5 %에서 132.5 %까지 큰 차이를 보였다.

High-temperature friction performances of graphite blocks (GBs) and zinc phosphate impregnated graphite blocks (IGBs) were evaluated under various friction temperatures. The surface of IGB exhibited extremely lower average friction coefficient values, that was 0.007 at 400 °C and 0.008 at 450 °C, in comparison to that of GB (0.13 at 400 °C and 0.16 at 450 °C, respectively). The worn surface of IGB in the high-temperature friction test was smoother and more complete than that of GB. The wear under high temperature and load caused the transformation of zinc pyrophosphate to zinc metaphosphate and the formation of a continuous large-area boundary lubrication layer combined with graphite and metallic element on the wear surface. The superior tribology property of IGB could be attributed to the digestion of iron oxides by tribo-chemical reactions and passivation of the exposed dangling covalent bonds. Specifically, the layered structure generated on the IGB wear interface effectively decreased the adhesive forces and prevented the surface from serious damage.

In this paper, cycle performance analysis of two-stage compression two-stage expansion refrigeration system using eco-friendly refrigerants is presented to offer the basic design data for the operating parameters of the system. Eco-friendly refrigerant R600a(Isobutane) for freon refrigerant R22 were used working fluids in this study. The coefficient of performance(COP) of R600a is about 5% greater than that of R22 two-stage compression refrigeration system in the range of evaporation temperature –30℃∼-60℃. The coefficient of performance of two-stage compression and two-stage expansion refrigeration system decreases with the increasing condensation temperature and superheating degree but increases with the increasing evaporation temperature, subcooling degree and mass flow rate ration of intercooler.

In the present study, it is conducted to understand the heating performance and compressor operation characteristics according to 7 indoor unit combinations and 3 setting temperatures of the inverter multi-heat pump under heating standard temperature conditions. Heating capacity, COP and compressor frequency are investigated using the multi-calorimeter. The indoor unit combinations are simultaneous operation(A+B+C), partial operation(A+C, A+B, B+C) and independent operation(A, B, C), and the setting temperature is 20, 21, and 30°C. Since the increase in the setting temperature increases the compress frequency, the heating capacity increases, but COP decreases due to the increase in power consumption. The frequency increases as the indoor unit combination capacity increases, and decreases as the setting temperature decreases in the steady state.

The distributions of common minke whales observed in the East Sea in ten surveys in May of 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2016 and 2020 were investigated using satellite sea surface temperature (SST) derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS). Most of the minke whales were observed in the waters off the Korean Peninsula at 36-38.5° N, which is expected as the highly productive coastal upwelling area. Yet, no minke whale was observed in 2006 when a relatively larger scale coastal upwelling occurred with SST at 11°C. In 2016 and 2020, the warm water higher than 17°C extended widely in the area, and the minke whales were observed in the offshore waters, deeper than 1,000 m. 87.5% of minke whales observed in May appeared in the SST from 13 to 16°C, and they seemed to avoid relatively high temperatures. This suggests that optimum habitat water temperature of minke whales in May is 13-16°C. The SST in the area had risen 1.67°C from 2003 to 2021, and it was remarkably higher than in other parts of the surrounding areas. The future temperature rising may change the route and timing of the migration of minke whales in the study area.

Cassia tora seed was processed by germination and roasting to develop a germinated Cassia tora tea. The effects of extraction temperature on antioxidative compounds in tea extracts were examined and compared to four different commercial Cassia tora tea products. The contents of antioxidative compounds, such as phenolics, flavonoids, and β-carotene, increased as the extraction temperature increased (5 to 80oC), subsequently increasing in vitro antioxidant activities (DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities). Germinated Cassia tora tea had higher antioxidative activity than selected commercial Cassia tora teas, and the difference was significant at low extraction temperature. Therefore, the germinated Cassia tora tea could contribute to a new type of tea product with enhanced bioactive and antioxidative activities by adopting appropriate processing and extraction conditions.

PURPOSES : The purpose of this study was to develop techniques for forecasting black ice using historical pavement temperature data collected by patrol cars and concurrent atmospheric data provided by the Korea Meteorological Administration. METHODS : To generate baseline data, the physical principle that ice forms when the pavement temperature is negative and lower than the dew-point temperature was exploited. To forecast frost-induced black ice, deep-learning algorithms were created using air, pavement, and dew point temperatures, as well as humidity, wind speed, and the z-value of the historical pavement temperature of the target segment. RESULTS : The suggested forecasting models were evaluated against baseline data generated by the above-mentioned physical principle using pavement temperature and atmospheric data gathered on a national highway in the vicinity of Young-dong in the Chungcheongbukdo province. The accuracies of the forecasting models for the bridge and roadway segments were 94% and 90%, respectively, indicating satisfactory results. CONCLUSIONS : Preventive anti-icing maintenance activities, such as applying anti-icing chemicals or activating road heating systems before roadways are covered with ice (frost), could be possible with the suggested methodologies. As a result, traffic safety on winter roads, especially at night, could be enhanced.

A compacted bentonite buffer is a major component of engineered barrier systems, which are designed for the disposal of high-level radioactive waste. In most countries, the target temperature required to maintain safe functioning is below 100°C. If the target temperature of the compacted bentonite buffer can be increased above 100°C, the disposal area can be dramatically reduced. To increase the target temperature of the buffer, it is necessary to investigate its properties at temperatures above 100°C. Although some studies have investigated thermal-hydraulic properties above 100°C, few have evaluated the water suction of compacted bentonite. This study addresses that knowledge gap by evaluating the water suction variation for compacted Korean bentonite in the 25–150°C range, with initial saturations of 0 and 0.22 under constant saturation conditions. We found that water suction decreased by 5–20% for a temperature increase of 100–150°C.

본 연구는 고속스핀에코 기법을 이용한 MRI 검사에서 영상 변수가 전자파 흡수율(SAR)과 온도 증가에 미치는 영향을 평가해 보고자 하였다. 이를 위해 인체 등가 조직 팬텀을 제작하였고 같은 조건에서 재위상화 RF의 FA와 ETL을 증가시키 며 MRI 검사를 시행하였다. SAR는 장비에서 계산된 두부 SAR값을 사용하였고 팬텀의 온도 변화는 양성자 공명 주파수를 이용해 계산하였다. 실험 결과, FA를 60°에서 180°까지 증가시켰을 때 SAR는 약 8배까지 상승하였고 팬텀의 온도 상승의 폭은 약 2.8배(0.21°-0.599°) 증가하였다. 그리고 다중 회귀 분석 결과, FA는 SAR와 온도 상승의 관계에서 표준화 계수 가 각각 0.935, 0.741로 나타나 높은 상관관계를 보였다. ETL은 15에서 30까지 증가시켰을 때 SAR는 약 2배 증가하였 다. 하지만 팬텀의 온도 상승 폭은 오히려 39.2%(0.53°-0.303°) 감소하였다. 다중 회귀 분석 결과에서도 ETL은 SAR의 관계에서 표준화 계수가 0.741로 양의 상관관계를 보였지만 온도 상승의 경우 표준화 계수가 –0.482로 나타나 음의 상관 관계가 있었다. 이는 ETL이 15에서 30까지 증가함에 따라 검사 시간이 약 43% 짧아져 전자파의 노출 시간이 감소한 것이 원인이 될 수 있다. 결국, FSE 기법을 이용한 MRI 검사에서는 재위상화 FA는 최소화하고 기준 SAR 범위 내에서 ETL을 최대로 적용하면 전자파로 인한 온도 상승을 최소화할 수 있어 환자 안전을 증진 시킬 수 있을 것으로 기대한다.

본 연구는 영국기상청에서 개발된 지역기후모델 Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model version 3 regional climate model (HadGEM3-RA)로부터 모의된 동아시아 지역의 기온과 강수 결과를 평가하였다. HadGEM3-RA 는 Coordinated Regional climate Downscaling Experiment-East Asia (CORDEX-EA) Phase II 영역에서 15년 (2000- 2014년) 모의되었다. 동아시아 여름 몬순에 의한 HadGEM3-RA 강수대 분포는 Asian Precipitation Highly ResolvedObservational Data Integration Towards Evaluation of water resources (APHRODITE) 자료와 잘 일치한다. 그러나, 동 남아시아 강수는 과대 모의하며 남한에서는 과소 모의한다. 특히 모의된 여름철 강수량과 APHRODITE 강수량은 남한 지역에서 가장 낮은 상관 계수와 가장 큰 오차크기(RMSE)를 보인다. 동아시아 기온 예측은 과소 모의하며 겨울철 오 차가 가장 크다. 남한 기온 예측은 봄 동안 가장 큰 과소 모의 오차를 나타냈다. 국지적 예측성을 평가하기 위하여 서 울기상관측소 ASOS 자료와 비교한 기온과 강수의 시계열은 여름철 강수와 겨울철 기온이 과소 모의하는 공간 평균된 검증 결과와 유사하였다. 특히 여름철 강수량 증가시 과소 모의 오차가 증가하였다. 겨울철 기온은 저온에서는 과소 모 의하나 고온은 과대 모의하는 경향이 나타났다. 극한기후지수 비교 결과는 폭염은 과대 모의하여, 집중호우는 과소 모 의하는 오차가 나타났다. 수평해상도25km로 모의된 HadGEM3-RA는 중규모 대류계와 지형성 강수 예측에서 한계를 보였다. 본 연구는 지역기후모델 예측성 개선을 위한 초기 자료 개선, 해상도 향상, 물리 과정의 개선이 필요함을 지시 한다.