This study examines the process of the introduction of stupa, which has originated in India, to the Xinjiang Uyghur region and the features of the stupas in the Xinjiang Uyghur region in detail. This study examines the layout of the buildings in temple compounds and the types, structural elements, and construction methods of the stupas in the Xinjiang Uyghur region in particular by looking into the content of the Da Tang Xi Yu Ji and remaining stupas, which provide examples of stupas at the time. This study finds that due to the characteristics of dry deserts, stupas in Xinjiang Uyghur region, where assimilation between Eastern and Western cultures is seen, were mostly made by pressing clay into a mold and had no interior spaces. Also, construction materials and techniques had been developed and improved in a way that enabled stupas to combat the challenging desert conditions. However, the stupas in this region differed significantly from the wooden tower-like stupas discovered in central China(zhongyuan 中原). The shape of the dome of most stupas in Xinjiang Uyghur region was chosen under the influence of the Gandharan style. Some of the stupas in the region have taken the general forms of the wooden stupas and the others have taken many forms, from cylindrical drums to towers. Also, there have been forests of stupas and stupas similar in form to chaityas and stupas of Vajrayana. Such different forms were transformed and modified through regional history and it was related to the peoples and cultures that produced and used stupas. Stupas evolved into distinct forms in Xinjiang Uyghur region in this way.

Jeongamsa Sumano Stupa(Korean National Treasure No. 332) is a brick like stone stupa and it is considered that this stupa was built in the Later Silla period or in the early part of the Koryo period, considering its structure and style. This Buddhist stupa is highly significant in Korean Buddhism since it was built to enshrine Buddhist sarira reliquaries that 'Jajang' brought from China in the 7th century, according to the 『Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Korean Kingdoms,『三國遺事』』. However, the stupa was positioned at the very unique location. It was positioned not at the center of Jeongamsa Temple, but at the separate edifice. The location of Jeongamsa Sumano Stupa indicates that this stupa embodies the nature of Mahaparinirvana treasure palaces and that this stupa was recognized as a solemn symbol, which reflected a sarira faith. Jeongamsa Sumano Stupa is the only brick stone stupa built in Gangwon province. It is worth noticing that this stupa was mostly made of dolostones, found around this region, and thereby regional characteristics were reflected in this stupa. The other interesting fact about Jeongamsa Sumano Stupa is that there are many records available which include information about stupa's reconstruction, considering that there aren't many records of other stupas. The most representative records are 5 pieces of memorial stones which include information about when and on what ground the stupa was reconstructed as well as information about originators of the stupa. In conclusion, Jeongamsa Sumano Stupar could be regarded as the academically valuable material since it is considered very important and helpful for understanding not only the history of Korean Buddhist stupas, but also so many other things such as construction techniques, styles of brick pagoda and brick stone stupa, and such.

As Sri Lanka Stupa had been affected by Indian stupa directly, understanding Sri Lanka Stupa is important to know about the flow of Buddhist Art History, which is showing the variation of Initial Buddhist stupa. Due to invasions and disasters, all Sri Lanka’s Stupa collapsed and became random mound. After restoration works, Stupa shape changed dramatically from the Initial shape to Existing shape. Since it is hard to find out how Initial stupas were like, Sanchi Stupa needed to be an example for the comparative study as an Initial shape. Sri Lanka Stupa have Square foundation and 3 Basal rings that are supporting the Main Dome. Entrances are on all 4 sides, Railing and Torana(gate) has never found in Sri Lanka stupa. Sri Lanka stupa has been classified with the shape of Dome into 6～8 types according to 『Vijayanta Potha』, the Ancient Buddhist Description, and described by several researchers confusingly. With the inconvenience of using unfamiliar words and irrational gap between the Initial Sri Lanka stupa and Existing Sri Lanka stupa, proposing new classification of Sri Lanka Stupa is necessary. Existing Sri Lanka Stupa can be classified into 4 types : which is ➀Bell type, ➁Pot type, ➂Mound type, ➃Bubble type. This suggestion is for further studies to use Easier and shorter words to describe the types and make it reasonable to use, since the current classification includes 3 stupa types even there is no case for any of them. Restrict Stupa Classifications within existing Sri Lanka Stupa is needed because the current classification had been continued for hundreds of years without any adjustments. Bell type is mainly located in Anuradhapura. Pot type and Mound type is only found in limited area, and Bubble type is located in most area of Sri Lanka.

This is a study on the construction of the Heungcheon-Temple. The results are follows. 1) The Heungcheon-Temple was anticipated to be the Jeongneung. However, when completed, the Heungcheon-Temple was symbolized Buddhism; moreover, there was a stupa enshrined sarira. The stupa was a land mark in Hanyang. While king Sejong repaired the stupa, it disappeared during the regin of King Jungjong. Before it disappeared the stupa signified a Buddhist event and a rite of good fortune. 2) The stupa was constructed using a double-frame, and there was a stone-stupa in an octagonal multi-layer temple. This single location consisted of a sarira space and a worship space. 3) Buddhist Relic(Sarira) worship was to witness holiness and therefore reics could be moved according to need. It appeared as though Buddhist Relic worship occurred in Southeast Asia. 4) The Heungcheon-Temple stupa was considered a new and superior architectural-symbol to comfort people and recognize the new order of Ming and neo-Confucianism. Therefore, the stupa was a good alternative to politics, religion, and external relations during the early Joseon era.

본 연구는 불탑 중 백제 말기 건립된 익산 미륵사지 석탑과 조선 중기 보은 법주사팔상 전과의 계통사적 구조체계의 상관성을 고찰한 것으로 다음과 같은 결론을 도출하였다. 첫째, 익산 미륵사지 구층석탑은 내부에 심초석(心礎石)이 설치된 것으로 보아 심주와 사천주가 코어구조체계(core structure system)인 누각형 탑파로 상층기둥의 위치에 따른 체감율이 큰 것으로 보아 퇴칸은 칸물림방식의 전각형이 채택된 절충형식이라는 추정이 가능하다. 둘째, 보은 법주사 팔상전은 목탑의 기본적인 구성요소인 옥심주와 사천주가 코어 구조 체계로 채용되고, 주변 협칸과 퇴칸은 전각형 칸물림방식의 중층구조기법을 부차적으로 채택하여 익산 미륵사지 석탑과 같은 계통의 체감율이 큰 특징의 절충형 목탑이라고 할 수 있다. 셋째, 백제시대 불탑구조는 누각형(평좌층식, 포구조식)과 누각형에 전각형을 채택한 절충형으로 대별된다. 불탑은 필요에 따라 탑신의 높낮이를 비례적으로 조절하여 완성미를 높였으며, 처마길이를 충분히 확보함으로써 건축물의 볼륨감(massing)이 풍부한 기능성이 강한 건축물을 축조하였다. 넷째, 백제시대에 창안된 새로운 불탑형식으로서의 절충양식은 백제 말기에 시원하여 문화통치기인 통일신라시대와 지방문화를 정책적으로 장려한 고려시대를 거쳐 조선 중기 보은 법주사 팔상전으로 끊임없이 이어져 계승된 백제 고유의 불탑양식이라고 할 수 있다.

This study aims to examine the early use of Da-bo tap and their transformation by analyzing the various meanings of the term pagoda in Chinese translations, the Sanskrit version of the Lotus Sutra, as well as Dabotap in the Mogao Caves of Dunhuang. In addition, we aim to highlight changes in Dabotap usage, which started out as residential spaces, but transformed into burial spaces over time. The details can be summarized as follows. First, early Buddhist monuments were usually either pagodas serving as burial places for the dead or shrines that were not. A Dabotap is a type of pagoda enshrining the body of Prabhutaratna, and was initially used as a residential space, rather than a burial place for the dead. Second, the terms stupa and caitya are clearly distinguished from each other in the Sanskrit scriptures, and stupa is also further classified into dhatu, sarisa, and atmabhava based on the object being enshrined. In Gyeon-bo-tab-pum, the preconditions for caitya to transform into stupa is presented by explaining that worshipping the space enshrining the body of Prabhutaratna is worthy of the same status as the space enshrining sarira. Third, the Mogao Caves of Dunhuang had been depicted from the Western Wei of the Northern Dynasties until the time of the Yuan Dynasty. It was used as a residential space until the early Sui Dynasty, but was used as both residence and burial places until the Tang Dynasty when pagodas were first being constructed with wheel or circles forms on top, which then gradually changed into stupa (grave towers).

This study aims to investigate the architectural characteristics of the Da-bo stupa by examining the correlation among architectural languages and by studying the features of its architectural components and transitional changes shown in Da-bo stupa line drawings in Dunhuang Mogao Grottes. The results are as follows. 1st, the Da-bo stupa of Dunhuang faithfully follows the sutra of lotus, and although the form changes, the fundamental essence of Bo-tap-yong-chul and two seated Buddhas provided by the Gyun-bo-tap-pum in the sutra of lotus is consistent. 2nd, the pagoda body can be periodically divided into parasol, stupa, and royal palace types. The parasol type has an incomplete tower body, which makes distinguishing each of its architectural components difficult. The stupa type appeared between the early (AD 618–712) and middle (AD 766–835) Tang dynasty. It combines the form of Indian stupa type and East Asian wood structural architecture. The royal palace type, which appeared between the peak period of the Tang (713–765) and Sung Dynasties, shows the standardized pattern of the Da-bo stupa described as two seated Buddhas and Bo-tap-yong-chul. 3rd, the use of a stylobate does not appear in the early construction of Da-bo stupa, only in the later period, in the form of high pillars. Forms include many Su-mi-jwah and three-way stairways and Dab-do, but as time passes, the forms are simplified to the form of high pillars. 4th, the purpose of early Da-bo stupa was to provide space for Da-bo-yu-rae of Gyun-bo-tap-pum; hence, it did not have sangryoon(the top part). However, after it was influenced by general pagodas, sangryoon was established. Toward the Tang Dynasty, sangryoon has come to emphasize the forms of boryoon(nine wheels) or dome. However, this form is eventually simplified to only retain bo-joo(the orb).

The typical form of Indian Stupa, which is going to understood the gradual development and various forms at the Kushan-era Stupa. Buddhist art and architecture of the Kushan-era was influenced Gandharan Hellenistic culture of the foreign. And indigenous Indian cultures of mature was visually big change. The Kushan-era Stupa has been ten feature. First, a circular podium at typical form of the initial Stupa was constantly changed. Second, is the Stupa of the overlaps and increase podium. Third, the Stupa has been square podium. Forth, is down scale of Anda(Bokbal). Fifth, increases the Stupa and Railing smaller, and Change the position of the Torana(gateway). Sixth, changing the target of the faith, thereby a statue of Buddha has been added in the Stupa. Seventh, around the main Stupa and podium are made in a tabernacle. Eighth, the developed spokes structure was added to on the podium inside. Ninth, crosswise plan appears unlike general Stupa. This type has relevance with Tower Stupa. Tenth, the Votive Stupa was added to the temples and Apse type chaitya has been developed.

이 논문은 남북조시대 사람들이 당시의 불상을 바라보던 시각에 관하여 고찰한 것이다. 인도에서는 사원의 중심이 스투파였다. 문헌에 의하면 붓다의 열반 후 스투파는 8기가 건립되었지만, 아쇼카 왕이 이 중의 7기를 해체하여인도전역에8만4천기의 불탑을 세웠다고하였다. 이것은 인도 전역의 거의 모든 불탑은 사실상 아쇼카 왕 시절에 만들어졌고 그 안에는 진신사리가 봉안되었다는 것을 의미하는 것이다. 그러나 중국에서는 남북조시대에 사원을 건립하면서 불사리가 필요했지만, 역사적으로 이를입수하기란거의불가능에가까운일이었을것이다. 때문에 集神州 三寶感通錄에 기록된 바와 같이 아쇼카 왕이 8만4천탑을 세울 때 그 일 부가중국에세워졌고, 그때의사리가발견되어 중국의 초기불탑들에 봉안된 것이라는 설화가 만들어졌던 것이다. 그러나 이러한 설화만으로는 더 많은 불사를 건립하는데 있어한계에부딪쳤을 것이다. 이러한 상황에서 해결책은 사리를 대체할 수 있는 물건으로도 탑을 세울 수 있다는 개념이었는데, 그러한 아이디어는 석가성도지인 보드가야의 중층누각형식의 마하보디 사당에서 비롯되었던 것으로 보인다. 마하보디 사당은 사리가 아닌 석가성도상을 봉안한 건축물이었는데, 당시 보드가야를 방문한 중국의 구법승들은 여기서 아이디어를 얻어 특히 현장과 같은 승려는 장안 慈恩寺大雁塔을 세울 때 이 마하보디 사당을 염두에 두었을 가능성이 크다고 생각된다. 그러나 한편으로는 탑 대신에 전혀 다른, 보다 쉬우면서도 직접적으로 숭배의 대상이 될 수 있는 새로운 아이템을 개발하였는데, 그것이 바로 불상이었다. 인도에서도 불상이 있었지만, 이는 주로 탑을 장엄하는 용도였으며 혹, 사리를 봉안한 불상이 불탑만큼 존숭을 받기는 했지만, 그것은 그 안의 사리 때문이었지, 상 자체의 영험함 때문은 아니었다. 그러나 이러한 불상들 역시 불사리처럼 진정성을 획득할 필요가 있었기 때문에, 아쇼카 왕의 조탑 설화와 마찬가지로 아쇼카 왕 조상 설화가 중국에서 만들어졌으며, 소위 아쇼카 왕상이라고 하는것은 오래 전에 중국에 전래되어 묻혀 있다가 새롭게 발굴되어 남북조 시대 사람들 앞에 다시 현현한 것으로 서당시 사람들에게 믿어졌던 것이다. 또한 이러한 상들은 다양한 기적을 일으켰으며, 만약 똑같이 복제되는 경우, 원본과 같은 기적을 일으키기도 하였다. 따라서 이미지를 복제함으로서 영험함도 복제할 수 있다는 이러한 경향은 보다 쉽게 불상의 진정성을 널리 유포시킬 수 있었을 것이다. 여기서 강조하고자 하는 것은 남북조시대의 일부 불상들은 아쇼카 왕이 만든 상, 혹은 그 상을 복제한 상으로 인식되었다는 점에서 이들 불상들은당시에제작된것이아니라, 훨씬오래전에제작된불상, 혹은오래된 양식으로서 당시 사람들에게 인식되었을 것이라는 점이다. 때문에 이들 불상이 보이는 양식은 당시의 양식이 아니라, 당시보다 더 오래된 양식으로 보이기 위한 의도된 고식, 혹은 고법이라는 점에서 이 시기의 양식을 倚古양식으로 불러보고자 하였다. 한편 이와는 별도로 우다야나 왕 조상설화도 전래되었는데, 이것은 우다야나 왕 시절에 도리천에 장인을 올려 보내 석가모니의 진용을 모사해 와서 조성한 상이므로, 석가의 모습을 그대로 담아낸 조각으로서의 의미를 지니고 있었다. 이는 말하자면 석가의 초상으로서 사실주의를 어느정도 바탕에 두어야했던 것이다. 이러한 개념에서본다면불교미술에서 사실적 양식이라고 언급해 왔던 인도의 굽타 양식이나 이를 받아들인 북위시대 운강석굴 초기의 불상 양식들은 서양의 사실주의와 구분하여 眞容양식이라고 불러도 좋지 않을까 제시해 보았다. 결국 이러한 고찰을 통해 단순히 인형에 불과할 수도 있었던 불상들에 사리를 대신한 진정성을 부여하기 위해 아쇼카 왕 설화와 같은 역사적 전통을 만들어 내거나 우다야나 왕 설화와 같은 시각적 전통에 의지해야 했던 당시의 상황을 짐작해 볼 수 있는 것이다.

The Buddhist cave temple carved into the rock provides a large space for the ritual in general in which a structure of Stupa is built in the center of the space purely for religious worship empty of Sarira, and the temple is formed around this Stupa. Relief-Stupa of the cave temple indicates the similar shape that of Relief-religious worship of flat land temple. However, there appears a small difference in representation since the background of formation of the cave temple differs in that of flat land temple. Specially, Caitya Stupa of currently existing cave temples have been damaged to lose of their original shape only possible to be analyzed the stylistic development through Relief-Stupa from which the characteristic of Stupa could be understood. The early cave temple could be characterized with a balanced structure consists of upturn bowl, steeple stone with simple drum & Hamikawasnagae, in which it appears strongly the detail factor characteristics of drum & steeple of having system with Caitya Stupa. In the post cave temple, the subject of worship moved to statue of Buddha due to the influence of Gandhara, Mathura art which reduced the importance of Stupa. This illustrates in Relief-stupa as well the style change as well as changes in detail factor. The sculpture appeared at the limited location either the wall of Caitya shrine or pillar in vihara cave with stronger decorative meaning. Contrast to the Relief Stupa of early flat land temples or the cave temples mentioned above sculptured with symbolism, however, the post cave temple showed the relief structure based on the plan of flat plan.

As the corner of wooden pagoda forms the roof by closely bordering left and right eaves on the various purlins and angle rafters, it is designed for every face to be recognized as front whose structure system increases load to bear proportionally. The corner of wooden pagoda is inseparable with the corner bracket set as it becomes stable thanks to the corner bracket set structurally and load burden under restrained structure makes the corner bracket set really important. Accordingly, this study could figure out some facts by analyzing corner bracket sets of Palsangjeon of Beobjusa Temple in Korea, Seokgatap of Bulgungsa Temple in China and Ojungtap of Beobryungsa Temple in Japan which were constructed with pure wooden structure. This study demonstrated that corner bracket set played a pivotal role in keeping balance of concentrated load of corner (corner of opening) in each floor that contributed to the stability of wooden pagoda structurally despite multiple duplications of floors and also figured out the outfit of corner bracket set was subject to the floor type and the cross section of Gongpo installed on top of Pyeongju. Wooden pagodas in 3 countries were two floor types of octagon and square, and employed different connection method between upper and lower floors. The difference between floor and duplication method determines the method of corner, but even different methods were sufficient to have entirety in every side by completing dynamic principle of corner bracket set even though old method had to solve the problem of concentrated load and it also confirms that it was essential Gongpo to prevent any deformation of corner.

Buddhism that has arisen in India began to build the Stupa to enshrine body and Sari of Buddha as an object of worship. The stupa existed as a tome of holy leaders even before the birth of Buddha, which was called stupa or tupa in the Sanskrit and the Pali, the ancient language of India. The stupa was renamed accordingly in each Buddhism transmitted countries such as Ceylon, Tibet, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand and China and also reshaped according to their own formative style. But its original meaning and type are kept unchanged. The stupa was established in the 4 holy places including the birth place of Buddha, the place where Buddha found enlightenment, the place where Buddha preached for the first time, and the place where Buddha died. Thus, a pagoda to commemorate holy ancient places is called Chaitya, which became differentiated from the stupa in which Sari is enshrined. The stupa means Nirvana, the eternal body of Buddha, and also a place filled with teaching and preaching of Buddhism. It signifies the symbol of Buddha who escaped from the death and rebirth, to achieve complete extinction, i.e. parinirvana, and to reach ultimate eternal world, rather than simply means death. During the non-statue of th Buddha period, people built the stupa to embody Nirvana of the Buddha, and worshipped the tomb where body of holy saints was enshrined. On the other hand, they also sanctified memorial things such as tools that holy saints used, the Bo tree under which one achieved Nirvana, Dharma cakra that implied words, footprint that carried out mission work, and a way to reach to heaven.

Stupa in India divides into two: stupa in flatland temple with a character of tomb, and devotional stupa made for offering. The difference of such character is made by whether there is any Sari, and main center for worship is flatland stupa where Sari is settled. Stupa in flatland temple is targeted to that with Sari, whose character is applied into Relief-stupa. The characteristics of Relief-stupa can be divided into two: a relief with similar type of flatland stupa in the form, and a devotional relief in which drum and upper part of tower are developed. The Relief-stupa of flatland temple could be confirmed at tower gate of Sanchi tower, decoration of handrail, and the wall attached to Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda stupa. To the contrary, drum and upper wheel part in the Relief-stupa are developed in the votive stupa. Such characteristics had different features according to usage: The example of former is that there is an expression of landscape of stupa built at that time, and the example of latter is those which had similar type of stone cave temple or offering tower near stupa. Thus, the meaning is subject to the existing of Sari. Stupa building developed along with the development of Buddhist structural activity with the existing popular tradition. And its influence was expanded along with various cultures locally. And, the structure and tower reflected various types and thoughts. Stupa reflected its building site and method according to types, and was created in a new form by its usage.

It is a true fact that the ancient Buddhist temples of Korea were great, important historical influence revealing the transition and developing stages of all the BUddhist temples in Eastern Asia including China and Japan. Before Mahayana arose within India, the monastery and pagoda were united during the conflict and development of the original Buddhism and pagoda faith. With the arising of Mahayana and the introduction of Buddhist statues, the Buddhist temple and pagoda were in conflict and resulted in separation. With the creation and development of the Mahayana Bodhisattva concept, Hinayana and Mahayana started to show doctrine differences and expressed each others' characteristics relevant to the structure of the temple. As a result, the Buddhist Temple having 1 pagoda spread in China together with Hinayana and Mahayana. The Buddhist temple of Hinayana had its temple and pagoda separated and the Buddhist temple that has a pagoda in front was divided into a form of 1 pagoda and 1 main temple. The temple and pagoda for Mahayana in the form of 1 pagoda and 2 temple, where the main statue of the Buddha may be worshipped from both the left and right hand sides, were separated in the form of 1 pagoda and 3 temples to have its original form again. Mahayana was first introduced into Goguryeo through the routes in the northern region and developed from having 1 pagoda and 2 temples, to having 1 pagoda and 3 temples. China was influenced by the southern regions, which is why Abhidharma was introduced into Baekje. Later on, the importance of Bodhisattva increased and the transition speed of the Buddhist temple having 1 pagoda and 3 temples accelerated, as Buddhism became more popular and as Mahayana flourished. The statue of the Buddha on both sides of the pagoda shall gradually move next to the central temple , and the temple shall form large crowds to not only form a tacit boundary with the pagoda but the expansion of Bodhisattva shall also have a wall or a corridor constructed in between the central, left and right hand side temples to form separate areas, and shall have a pagoda built in front of the temples that worship from both sides. In conclusion, independence shall exist among each Bodhisattva within the Buddhist temple, and the status of the pagoda shall fall and appear as the pagoda on both sides in front of the main Buddha statue.

As Overturned-bowl Stupa of India, the origin of Stupa, is accepted by neighboring countries, pure form and local characteristics combined to bring change in unique style for each country. Such change is established as new style through combination with contemporary tradition in China. In this thesis, pattern of Stupa shown in Longmen Grottoes’ Relief-Stupa relieves. Since study on how Indian Stupa was introduced into China has been partially undertaken, this study focuses on the pattern of Stupas from that perspective. 40 Stupas were explored during field work with naked eyes, among about 50 stupas reported on the research data by Longmen Grottoes Institute. Relief-Stupa relieves of Longmen Grottoes are as important as Yungang Grottoes. While Yungang Grottoes were built during a period when Gandhara style and Occidental expression were adopted and integrated with Chinese culture and Buddhism, building of Longmen Grottoes can be called a starting point of ‘Chinese’ style of Buddhist culture and Stupa, fully integrated with Chinese culture.