The purpose of this study was to investigate the awareness, eating experience, and preference of kimchi, and the sensory evaluation of kimchi from Chinese and Korean students residing in Korea. General information (including age, sex, duration of staying, living status) was collected. A questionnaire was used to collect the information on awareness, eating experience, and preference of kimchi and dishes made with kimchi. Sensory evaluations were carried out on a 10 point scale. All subjects (37 Koreans, 43 Chinese) were aware of kimchi, with 98% of the Chinese subjects recognizing kimchi as a Korean traditional food and 65% having eaten kimchi at least once a day. The types of kimchi preferred by Chinese subjects were generally sweet and not over-bearing in seasoning, hotness, or ripeness. The more frequently eaten foods made with kimchi were jjigae, bokkeumbap, bibimbap and kimbap. However, the more preferred dishes made with kimchi were bossam, jeongol, bokkeum, jeon, and ramyeon. The Chinese subjects were especially sensitive to spicy odors (4.6±2.2/10), salted seafood odors (4.6±2.3/10), offodors (4.4±2.3/10) and aftertaste (5.9±2.1/10) compared to Korean subjects. Taken all together, the perception as well as sensory characteristic of kimchi needs to be improved for the globalization of kimchi.

The effects of stevioside-containing sweetener (SCS) on kimchi quality were evaluated by investigating acid production, growth of lactic acid bacteria, sensory properties, and several volatile odor component (VOC)s of SCS-added kimchi. The concentrations of SCS added to kimchi instead of 1% white sugar were 0.165, 0.33, 0.66, and 1.32% (w/w). The pH of kimchi with higher amounts of added SCS generally increased, and the acidity of kimchi with higher amounts of added SCS generally decreased. Addition of higher amounts of SCS generally inhibited the growth of lactic acid bacteria in kimchi. Scores of overall acceptability for 0.33 or 0.66% SCS-added kimchi were significantly higher than those for other samples (p<0.05), whereas those for 1.32% SCS-added kimchi were significantly lower than those for other samples (p<0.05). The optimum concentration of SCS added to kimchi appears to be 0.33%. Among major VOCs identified in kimchi, the concentrations of seven components including ethanol generally decreased with addition of higher amounts of SCS, whereas that of diallyl disulfide was not changed markedly. The major VOCs contributing to desirable sensory properties of kimchi were likely dimethyl disulfide and diallyl sulfide.

김치발효에는 여러 종류의 유산균이 관여하고 있고 이들은 면역조절기능 등 다양한 probiotics 특성을 가지고 있다고 알려져 있으나 기존 연구가 주로 배추김치에 국한되어 있어 보다 다양한 종류의 김치에 대한 미생물학적 분석이 요구된다. 그리고 김치발효의 메커니즘을 보다 정확히 이해하기 위해서는 bacteriophage와 김치유산균과의 관계가 구명되어야 할 것이다. 이와 더불어 김치유산균의 특성 및 이들이 가지고 있는 유전자의 기능을 보다 심도 있게 연구해서 김치 종주국으로서 우위를 유지하고, 학술적인 유산균 연구분야에 있어서도 국제수준의 경쟁력을 확보해야 할 것이다.

This study investigated the fermentative characteristics and immunomodulating activity in Kimchi added with various salts(salt replacement and herb-salt with Acanthopanax senticosus and Glycyrrhizae uralensis) for the reduction of Na concentration in Kimchi. Kimchi using a salt replacement and herb-salt showed a higher level of acidity (0.8～0.84%) than that of the control (0.7%) at 7-day fermentation. Kimchi using a salt replacement and herb-salt showed a lower level of salinity (1.72～1.98%) than that of control (2.3～2.57%) during fermentation. The growth of Lactobacillus spp. and Leuconostoc spp. recorded the highest level (2.3×10⁸ and 2.8×10⁶ cfu/g, respectively) in control at 6 day fermentation. However, those levels in Kimchi prepared with salt replacement and herb-salt were 3.5～5.4×10⁸ and 6.1×10⁶ cfu/g, respectively. It is assumed that the high level of acidity of Kimchi prepared with salt replacement and herb-salt was caused by the increase in the growth of Lactobacillus spp. and Leuconostoc spp.. When the macrophage stimulating activity of salt replacement kimchi (Salt-R kimchi) supplemented with hot-water extract from Acanthopanax sentisus (AS) or Glycyrrhiza uralensis (GU) was investigated on aging period, Salt-RA kimchi with AS 5% at 6 days (2.78-fold of saline control at 100 ㎍/㎖) and Salt-RG kimchi with GU 5% at 9 days (2.02-fold) significantly increased compared to the Salt-RA kimchi without AS or GU. In addition, Salt-RAG kimchi with AS 3% and GU 3% improved the bitter taste of Salt-RA and potently stimulated the macrophage at 6 days (1.28-fold of Salt-R kimchi) even though its activity was lower than Salt-RA (5%, 1.39-fold).

Ginsenosides, ginseng saponin, are the principal components responsible for the pharmacological and biological activities of ginseng. In order to improve absorption and biological activities, the biotransformation of major ginsenoside to minor ginsenoside, as the more active compound, is required. In this study, we isolated Lactobacillus brevis THK-D57, which has high β-glycosidase activity, from Kimchi. The major ginsenoside Rb₁ was converted to the minor ginsenoside ‘compound K’ during the fermentation of L. brevis THK-D57. The results propose that the biotransformation pathway to produce compound K is as follows: ginsenoside Rb₁→ginsenoside Rd→ginsenoside F₂→ginsenoside compound K.

This study was designed to investigate foreigner preferences for the sensory characteristics of kimchi with different fermentation periods. After fermentation in a 5 freezer for 1, 7, and 15 days, Red Chinese Cabbage Kimchi, White Chinese Cabbage Kimchi, Kkakdugi, Chonggak Kimchi, Cucumber Kimchi, Green Onion Kimchi, and Mustard Kimchi were served to the respondents. The respondents had resided in Seoul and Kyunggi province for 3 years or less, and were from Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. Most respondents (62.9%) consumed a Korean meal daily, and 45% of all respondents reported eating kimchi 3 or 4 times a week. As a result, it can be said that foreigners residing in Korea preferred to eat kimchi as a side dish. Based on the respondents answers, we were able to determine the relative popularity of the different types of kimchi. They were, from most popular to least popular, Red Chinese Cabbage Kimchi, Kkakdugi Kimchi, Cucumber Kimchi, White Chinese Cabbage Kimchi, Chonggak Kimchi, Green Onion Kimchi, and Mustard Kimchi. Among those fermented for 1 day, Cucumber Kimchi was most preferred for its. When evaluating the overall preference of Kimchi, the best was in the order of Chinese cabbage (red)>Kkakdugi>Cucumber>Chinese cabbage (white)>Chonggak>Green onion>Mustard Kimchi. For 1 day in a fermented period, Cucumber Kimchi had the most preferred taste (5.76), appearance (5.66), odor (5.89), and texture (5.70). However, Cucumber Kimchi was least popular after 15 days of fermentation (p<0.01). The most preferred Kimchi after 15 days of fermentation was Red Chinese Cabbage Kimchi. Among the kimchi fermented for 7 days, White Chinese Cabbage Kimchi was most preferred. While foreigners indicated that they were satisfied with all the types of kimchi fermented for 1 day and 15 days, they were not satisfied with any of the kimchi fermented for 7 days, save for the White Chinese Cabbage Kimchi. Kkakdugi Kimchi had very high satisfaction scores for appearance, but low scores in taste. On the other hand, Chinese Cabbage Kimchi had low scores in odor (5.02-5.29), but high in texture (5.37-5.62) and taste (4.80-5.30), which are not factors sensitive to a change in acidity. These results showed that foreigners were generally satisfied with Kimchi, but became less satisfied as the Kimchi ripened. Most foreigners were not satisfied with the types of Kimchi that had a strong flavor. Chinese Cabbage Kimchi became the least sour after fermentation, and Cucumber Kimchi became most sour after fermentation.

n this study, Kimchi usage was examined by nationwide consumers. 1, 000 consumers between 20～60 years olds from 15 cities/province based on an administrative district participated in this questionnaire, which were one-on one interviews from September 23th to October 14th, 2009. 76.1% of the customers prepared Kimchi by them self, 26.9% customers received Kimchi from relatives and, 13.1% purchase Kimchi from the market. In addition, the rate of preparing Kimchi by themselves increased with age(p<0.05). 4～6 cabbage heads(34.5%) was the most preferred quantity for preparing Kimchi at a time, which was followed by more than 10 heads(25.2%) and 2～3 heads(22.9%). Chinese cabbage Kimchi was the most preferred type for purchase. 49.1% of customers purchased Kimchi at the supermarket and warehouse market and the origin of the ingredients, taste and-, price of Kimchi were considered important factors. The satisfactory scores of selling Kimchi were variety 3.60, taste 3.11, freshness of main ingredient 3.10, hygiene 2.86, -appropriate salt usage 2.99 and-, the origin of ingredients 2.94. There were significant difference between gender in taste and hygiene of selling Kimchi (p<0.05). In conclusion, to provide more appropriate Kimchi based on changes in Kimchi usage and consumption patterns at home and in the community, new types of Kimchi should be developed.

Salted Cabbage products purchased from different companies at 4 different districts in South Korea were detected in this study. Cabbage and salt are the main materials for kimchi manufacture. The results of general bacteria contaminated in the samples were 1.4 × 10^5, 6.4 × 10^5, 1.7 × 10^7, 3.6 × 10^7 CFU/g in cabbage and 2.7 × 10³ CFU/g in salt,respectively. The results of coliforms were detected as 2.4 × 10⁴ CFU/g, and there was no Escherichia coli in any sample. Staphylococcus aureus was detected in cabbage as 9.9 × 10², 8.0 × 10¹, and 3.0 × 10³ CFU/g, Bacillus cereus was also found in cabbage as 4.1 × 10³ and 1.0 × 10¹ CFU/g. The results of Campylobacter jejuni and Vibrio paraheamolyticus were 2.4 × 10^6 and 1.0 × 10⁴ CFU/g in cabbage, respectively. 1.0 × 10³ CFU/g for Yersinia enterocolitica was determined in salt. In case of Listeria monocytogenes, the results were 1.5 × 10¹, 1.1 × 10², and 4.5 × 10¹ CFU/g in cabbage. Total batcteria ranged from 1.4 × 10¹ to 4.4 × 10^5 CFU/g were detected in salting solution, from 1.5 × 10⁴ to 1.2 × 10^8 CFU/g in dehydrated salted-cabbage, from 9.4 × 10⁴ ~1.3 × 10^8 CFU/g in minced salted-cabbage. The results of E. coli in samples from different companies were different from one to anther. The results of the contamination of S. aureus and B. cereus showed positive in salting solution and dehydrated salted-cabbage at a portion of companies. V. paraheamolyticus was detected in salting solution. The contamination of Y. enterocolitica ranged from 9.5 × 10² to 1.8 × 10³ CFU/g in salting solution, from 1.7 × 10¹ to 2.7 × 10² CFU/g in dehydrated salted-cabbage, from 1.2 × 10² to 1.3 × 10^8 CFU/g in minced salted-cabbage. The contamination of L. monocytogenes ranged from 8.0 × 10² to 1.7 × 104 CFU/g in salting solution, from 2.8 × 10² to 1.2 × 10⁴CFU/g in dehydrated salted-cabbage. During the manufacture processing of Kimchi, microorganisms were detected in cabbages salted in different concentrations of salt solution at 8%, 10%, 12% and 15% for 5-20 hours. As the results, 3.5 × 10^5 -1.7 × 10^6 , 3.4 × 10^5 - 2.5 × 10^6 , 5.4 × 10^5 - 2.3 × 10^6 , 4.0 × 10^5 - 2.3 × 10^6 CFU/g were detected for E. coli in samples at different treatment conditions. 1.9 × 10⁴- 4.1 × 10⁴, 4.1 × 10³ - 2.8 × 10⁴, 1.5 × 10³ - 7.8 × 10³ , 2.2 × 10⁴- 6.6 × 10⁴CFU/g were detected for S. aureus in samples at different treatment conditions. Salmonella typhimurium was detected in salted cabbage with various salt concentration after salting for 5 hrs, the result ranged from 2.5 × 10^5 to 3.8 × 10^6 CFU/g, and change of microorganism was the smallest in salted cabbage under the concentration of salting solution at 10% for 15 hours. The cabbage salted in 10% salting solution for 15 hours were washed with water for 2 and 3 times, with chlorine for 3 times, and with acetic acid for 3 times. E. coli was detected in the samples washed with water for 2 and 3 times, washed with chlorine for 3 times. The contamination of S. aureus was 3.0 × 10^5 CFU/g in the samples washed with water for 2 times,5.6 × 10³ CFU/g in the samples washed with acetic acid for 3 times, 3.6 × 10^5 CFU/g in the samples washed with water for 3 times and same amount in the samples washed with chlorine for 3 times. According to the results, the contamination of S. aureus was 5.6 × 10³ CFU/g lower in samples washed with chlorine and acetic acid than that in samples washed with water. In case of S. typhimurium, it has been detected in samples washed with water and chlorine, 3.0 × 10¹ CFU/g as the lowest concentration among all the samples was measured in the samples washed with acetic acid for 3 times.

The removal amount of pesticide residue which were remained in baechu (Chinese cabbage) and perilla leaf were measured during the preparation process of kimchi. The amounts of diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan applied to chinese cabbage were 9.18 ± 0.03 mg/kg, 22.27 ± 0.22 mg/kg and 10.46 ± 0.02 mg/kg respectively. When chinese cabbage was brined with 10% salt solution for 12 hours, the removal rates of three pesticides were 22.5%, 25.3% and 0.6% for diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan, respectively. When chinese cabbage was brined and rinsed 3 times with water, the removal rates of three pesticides were 69.9%, 85.6% and 11.2% for diazinon,procymidone and endosulfan, respectively. When kimchi was prepared and fermented for 28 days at 4oC, the removal rates of three pesticides were 79.4%, 94.4% and 21.0% for diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan, respectively. The relative percentages of removal dose of pesticides during brining were 28.4%, 26.9% and 3.2% for diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan, respectively and which were 59.7%, 63.8% and 50.4% during rinsing and which were 11.9%,9.3% and 46.4% during fermentation, respectively. The amounts of diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan applied to perilla leaf were 18.11 ± 0.62 mg/kg, 31.80 ± 0.33 mg/kg and 12.01 ± 0.01 mg/kg, respectively. When perilla leaf was rinsed 3 times with water, the removal rates of three pesticides were 60.5%, 52.0% and 23.7% for diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan, respectively. When perilla leaf was rinsed and brined with 10% salt solution for 14 days, the removal rates of three pesticides were 93.9%, 92.4% and 49.6% for diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan, respectively. The relative percentages of removal dose of pesticides during rinsing were 64.5%, 56.3% and 47.8% for diazinon,procymidone and endosulfan, respectively, and which during brining were 35.5%, 43.7% and 52.2% for diazinon, procymidone and endosulfan, respectively.

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of various kinds of commercial salts, including Hanju salt, Deep sea water salt, Salicornia herbacea salt, Guwoon salt, Bamboo salt and salt replacement for the reduction of Na concentration in kimchi. The fermentative characteristics of these salts were determined during the fermentation at 10℃. Kimchi using a salt replacement and with Salicornia herbacea salt showed slow changes in their pH values. The use of salt replacement showed the lowest level(0.97%) of the retardation of kimchi fermentation. For the preparation of kimchi that used a low Na, chemical and microbial changes were investigated during the fermentation of process, examining preparations with both table salt and a salt replacement(CS-17). The salinity level of kimchi prepared with table salt(control) and the salt replacement (CS-17) were 2.17~2.5% and 1.72~1.99% during fermentation, respectively. The Na contents of kimchi with CS-17(562.5 ㎎%) showed a lower level than that with table salt(879.0 ㎎%). The growth of Leuconostoc sp. was highest (1.5×108 cfu/g) in Kimchi with CS-17 at 6 day-fermentation, but the highest level(2.3×107 cfu/g) in kimchi with table salt was at 7day- fermentation. The cells of Lactobacillus sp. in the kimchi prepared with CS-17 and table salt increased to 3.0×108 cfu/g and 6.0×107 cfu/g at 8day-fermentation, respectively. It was concluded that the use of CS-17 could reduce Na levels in kimchi and mitigate over-maturation.

The nutritional value of kimchi is gaining global focus along with new possibilities and uses for the various salts used in making kimchi. The purpose of the study is to conduct research on the uses of various salts and investigate the consumer recognition of salt use in kimchi preparation. The findings are from 824 consumers over 19 years old from 15 locations who participated in this questionnaire via one-to-one interviews from September 23rd to October 14th, 2009. The results of the questionnaire show that when customers cooked, 71.9% used solar salt, 62.2% used flower salt (refined salt), 27.4% used Hanju salt (purified salt), 59.0% used processed salt (roasted salt), 47.4% used bamboo salt, 69.4% used Mat salt (table salt), and 18.2% used low sodium salt. The most preferred origin of salts was domestic. Most customers salted Chinese cabbage while preparing kimchi. Consumers showed low perceptions of different salts used in kimchi production, and did not exactly recognize the characteristics of various salts. The preferences for domestic and solar salts were very high, while the preference for sea salts was low. In conclusion, various types of salts could improve the quality of kimchi. This study hopes to help consumers produce better kimchi to match different needs. Therefore, attention should be paid to promoting the characteristics of various salts influencing the quality of kimchi.