간행물
한국도로학회논문집 KCI 등재 International journal of highway engineering
- 발행기관 한국도로학회
- 자료유형 학술지
- 간기 격월간
- ISSN 1738-7159 (Print)2287-3678 (Online)
- 수록기간 1999 ~ 2026
- 주제분류 공학 > 토목공학 공학 분류의 다른 간행물
- 십진분류KDC 534DDC 625
권호리스트/논문검색
제28권 제3호 통권137호 (2026년 6월) 17건
1.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
The purpose of this study is to establish a foundation for design guidelines by characterizing the behavior of a CRCP tapered-end terminal connected to a mainline CRCP. A pilot construction was conducted to determine the deformation and displacement within the CRCP transverse crack, at the end and at the connection. Various measuring instruments were installed and monitored to evaluate these trends. Although the reinforcement stress was lower than that of the main line, the shrinkage and expansion at the ends showed no significant deviation from the main line CRCP. Tie-bar measurements indicated that tensile deformation occurred on the inner side near the longitudinal construction joint, whereas compressive deformation occurred on the outer side. Furthermore, these results indicated the superposition of bending induced by longitudinal displacement and tension caused by transverse displacement along the LCJ. Additionally, the strain increased as the tie-bar installation propagated closer to the CRCP end. Through regression analysis, the thermal displacement at the end expansion joint was determined to be 0.1122 mm per unit temperature. The longitudinal displacement along the longitudinal construction joint was selected at the ends and attenuated rapidly within a range of 2–4 m. The recorded daily and seasonal displacements at the end were 0.38 and 2.73 mm. Although the longitudinal reinforcement strain at the tapered ramp terminal was lower than that at the main line, the end displacement exhibited a similar trend. To address the excessive bending observed near CRCP expansion joints, this study proposed a method for determining tie-bar offset distances, thereby establishing a technical basis for improved pavement design at tapered sections.
4,000원
2.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
As pavements age and traffic loads increase, the importance of reliably evaluating pavement deterioration has increased. Therefore, this study proposes an Artificial Intelligence(AI)-based rating-classification method that integrates Falling Weight Deflectometer(FWD) deflection, the elastic modulus, and the crack rate obtained through coring to construct a continuous comprehensive index and classifies pavement deterioration into four stages based on the index. For this analysis, the deflection and elastic modulus obtained from the FWD test (a nondestructive test) and the crack rate calculated through coring (a destructive test) were converted into a continuous normalization index. Subsequently, a comprehensive index graph was constructed using a weighted integration method, and an AI-based slope change analysis was performed to determine the threshold value for classifying the pavement conditions. The step-by-step scoring-based and continuous comprehensive index-based analyses showed similar overall results. However, the continuous comprehensive index-based analysis was more effective for mitigating the stepwise distribution effect and reflecting the pavement deterioration trend in more detail. In both analysis methods, the slope change point was confirmed as the threshold value. Using this value, the pavement state can be classified into four stages, which reflect the deterioration characteristics of each pavement type. However, this study has several limitations. To improve the reliability of the system, additional detailed data, such as crack location, crack shape, and other field information used in the comprehensive index calculation, should be continuously incorporated. This approach enables the establishment of an evaluation system that integrates nondestructive and destructive test data.
4,000원
3.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
In jointed concrete pavements, the thermal expansion of slabs gradually accumulates under prolonged and repeated high-temperature conditions, thereby increasing the compressive stress. When the compressive stress exceeds a critical level, blow-up may occur. Because blow-up occurs abruptly and involves large deformations, driving safety can be affected significantly. Stress-relief joint installation and contraction-joint cleaning are widely recognized as representative measures for preventing blow-ups in in-service concrete pavements. Stressrelief joints are intended to reduce the compressive stress generated at a specified time by providing expansion space within the pavement when the slabs become integrated and restrained under high temperature. By contrast, contraction-joint cleaning delays slab integration even under higher-temperature conditions by removing debris and incompressible materials within the joints, which significantly affects the slab expansion behavior, thereby securing additional expansion space. However, the extent to which these methods can quantitatively delay the occurrence of blow-ups has not yet been sufficiently analyzed. Therefore, this study adopted the pavement growth and blow-up analysis model to analyze the effects of stress-relief joint installation and contraction-joint cleaning on the accumulation behavior of compressive stress and the timing of blow-up occurrence in jointed concrete pavements. In particular, the effects of ΔT (i.e., the difference between the maximum internal concrete temperature and the trigger temperature for pavement growth, TTPG), as well as alkali–silica reaction were considered. Here, the TTPG refers to the temperature at which all contraction joints within the expansion length are fully closed and the slabs are integrated. The results showed that the TTPG gradually decreased as the service life increased; Accordingly, ΔT increased, thus resulting in the continuous accumulation of compressive stress within the slabs. These findings suggest that the risk of blow-up may increase with pavement age, and that the timing and effectiveness of preventive measures must be quantitatively evaluated.
4,500원
4.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
Pavement temperature is a critical factor in winter road maintenance as it directly affects operational decisions related to de-icing, antiicing, and other safety measures. Accurate forecasting of pavement temperature enables road agencies to optimize maintenance strategies, reduce operational costs, and improve roadway safety outcomes. This study proposes a novel machine-learning algorithm, termed LSTMCNN, which integrates convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with long short-term memory (LSTM) networks for pavement temperature prediction. The proposed model enables the LSTM component to capture sequential dependencies, whereas the CNN component extracts local and spatial features embedded in time-series temperature records. Therefore, the proposed model can effectively identify long-range temporal relationships while uncovering localized or spatial features within the dataset. The input data—comprising pavement, atmospheric, and soil temperatures—were obtained at the entrance of a tunnel where a multivehicle pile-up due to black ice had occurred previously. The proposed LSTM-CNN model achieved an average prediction error of 0.61 ℃ and was benchmarked against other well-established machine-learning models, including Transformer and standalone LSTM architectures. The results show that the proposed algorithm delivers statistically superior predictive performance. The LSTM-CNN approach offers significant potential for enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of winter road maintenance operations.
4,000원
5.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study evaluates the potential changes in durability when the next-generation concrete surface (NGCS) method is applied to latexmodified concrete (LMC) for bridge deck pavements. Whereas the NGCS method effectively reduces noise and improves drivability on concrete pavement surfaces, concerns have been raised regarding potential durability degradation due to reduced pavement thickness resulting from surface abrasion and increased exposure to the interfacial transition zone (ITZ). Accordingly, this study utilized field cores obtained from the Incheon Bridge and Beonam Bridge as well as laboratory-mixed specimens with varying latex incorporation rates to test their resistance to rapid chloride penetration, chloride ion diffusion coefficient, accelerated carbonation, freeze–thaw cycles, surface spalling, and abrasion resistance. Experimental results showed that the application of NGCS decreased salt damage resistance due to surface abrasion and increased ITZ exposure. However, the carbonation resistance, freeze–thaw resistance, surface spalling resistance, and abrasion resistance improved owing to the removal of the laitance layer. Furthermore, utilizing LMC bridge deck pavements maintained high watertightness and excellent durability through additional hydration. In particular, all the test results satisfied the quality standards for bridge deck pavements, thus indicating that sufficient durability can be secured even when the NGCS is applied in actual field conditions. Therefore, the NGCS does not significantly degrade the overall durability when applied to LMC bridge deck pavements and is highly feasible in securing long-term serviceability, noise reduction, and improved drivability. The reliability of applying the NGCS can be further improved performing additional long-term monitoring and serviceability evaluations in actual bridge environments in the future.
4,000원
6.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study develops a design-data-based lifecycle greenhouse gas emission assessment framework for jointed concrete pavement highways in Korea. The framework considers road pavements as a long-life infrastructure system that includes material production, transport, construction, maintenance, end-of-life treatment, and recycling benefits beyond the system boundary. A functional unit comprising 1 km of jointed concrete pavement was defined, and 16 datasets were constructed from highway concrete pavement projects using bills of quantities, material summary sheets, and geometric information. A key feature of this framework is the incorporation of project-specific maintenance scenarios. The mainline and tunnel sections were separately evaluated and weighted based on their actual length ratios. The numbers of milling and overlay applications were estimated using the slab thickness and traffic volume from the design data. After each overlay, the cumulative ESALs and crack progression were recalculated from the overlay year to determine the subsequent overlay timing, instead of applying a fixed maintenance cycle. The application of the framework yielded an average lifecycle GHG emission of 1,294 t CO₂eq./km, with a standard deviation of 284 t CO₂eq./km. The proposed framework provides a basis for a consistent lifecycle GHG assessment and design-stage environmental evaluation of concrete pavement highways.
4,500원
7.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study analyzes the effects of speed humps installed and operated as traffic safety facilities on emergency-vehicle operations and route selection during dispatch, with emphasis on the perceptions and experiences of field practitioners in Busan, Korea. A survey was conducted with 294 firefighters affiliated with the Busan Metropolitan City Fire and Disaster Headquarters. Factors influencing their intention to change dispatch routes were empirically identified through descriptive statistical analysis and binary logistic regression analysis. The physical impacts of speed humps, the perceptions of installation standards, and the effects of job duties and vehicle characteristics on route-change decisions were examined. The intention to change routes due to speed humps was determined not merely based on perceived inconvenience but also by a combination of factors, including the emergency-vehicle type, whether the respondent was responsible for driving, experiences of equipment vibration and falling inside the vehicle, perceptions regarding the necessity to improve installation standards, and job-rank characteristics. In particular, the experience of equipment vibration inside vehicles and perceptions of the necessity to improve installation standards were identified as key factors that more than doubled the likelihood of route changes. Speed humps are not only traffic-calming devices intended to reduce vehicle speed but also traffic facilities that directly affect behavioral decision-making related to actual emergency dispatch strategies and route selection. Additionally, the results suggest that the current installation standards and operational system for speed humps do not sufficiently reflect the driving characteristics of emergency-response vehicles.
4,200원
8.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study proposes supplementary performance indicators to support approach-level interpretation within the current Smart Intersection System (SIS) evaluation framework, and examines their interpretive characteristics through real-world case studies. While existing Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) performance evaluation standards assess the accuracy at the lane-level direction unit, practical traffic operations often require a comprehensive understanding of the performance at the approach level. To address this limitation, three supplementary indicators were developed: traffic-weighted approach accuracy (TWAA), which reflects the average performance considering traffic exposure; bottleneck-based approach score (BAS), which identifies the lowest-performing lane-level direction unit; and the approach reliability index (ARI), which evaluates the overall operational stability based on threshold compliance. Case study results demonstrate that the proposed indicators provide complementary insights using the same raw data. The TWAA reflects the operational influence of dominant traffic flows. The BAS reveals localized deficiencies that may be masked by average-based measures. The ARI identifies whether the performance is consistently maintained across lane-level direction units. Rather than replacing existing evaluation standards, the proposed indicators serve as a multidimensional framework that enhances the usability of performance data in decision making. These indicators can be applied in a complementary manner depending on the evaluation objectives, such as administrative acceptance, operational efficiency, and maintenance prioritization. Future research should further validate the framework under diverse traffic and geometric conditions, and extend its application to intersection-wide and network-level analyses.
4,000원
9.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
Drowsy driving on highways is a critical traffic safety issue because the monotonous driving environment frequently induces driver fatigue, often leading to severe or fatal crashes. This study aims to develop a quantitative drowsy driving index (DDI) to proactively identify highrisk segments and establish effective safety management strategies. To achieve this, diverse static and dynamic traffic data along with weather conditions were integrated. We developed two distinct frequency models: a crash risk model setting drowsy driving crashes as the dependent variable, and a drowsiness-inducing risk model based on the frequency of drowsy driving behaviors. Poisson and negative binomial regression models were employed to account for the rare-event nature and overdispersion of crash data. Variables were carefully selected based on the variance inflation factor to prevent multicollinearity, and optimal models were determined using the Akaike information criterion. The final DDI was formulated by combining the quantified crash and drowsiness-inducing risks through a weight-based integration method. The analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between the proposed DDI and both actual drowsy driving crashes and behavioral frequencies. The proposed DDI framework offers a robust tool for monitoring and managing drowsy driving risks. Through public-private partnerships, this methodology can be utilized to provide real-time, location-based warnings and rest area guidance to drivers to significantly mitigate crash risks. Future research should expand the analysis to encompass a wider highway network and incorporate road geometry data, such as curve radii and gradients, to further enhance the precision and realism of the index.
4,000원
10.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
Demand responsive transit (DRT) has emerged as a key alternative for small- and mid-sized Korean cities, where fixed-route services cannot accommodate spatially and temporally heterogeneous demands. However, most prior research has analyzed either operational logs or usersatisfaction surveys in isolation. This study addresses that gap through an integrated empirical analysis of the Naju "Naju-Call Bus" service, characterizing the spatiotemporal structure of DRT demand and identifying which service-quality dimensions drive overall satisfaction. We employed two complementary data sources: 13,071 operational trip logs (Jan–Mar 2025) and 491 user-satisfaction survey responses (Apr 2025). The spatiotemporal analysis combined origin-destination flow mapping, DBSCAN clustering (eps = 0.0025, min_samples = 20), and time-of-day decomposition. The satisfaction analysis applied factor analysis and a single-ordered logit model with 14 dummy-expanded covariates. The proportional-odds (PO) assumption was verified via the Brant Wald test and model-based likelihood-ratio test (Wolfe and Gould, 1998). Spatial analysis identified four demand clusters with only five noise points (0.1%) forming short-distance radial patterns toward urban-core nodes. Temporal decomposition distinguished commuter-peak clusters (8 AM, 6 PM) from afternoon life-service clusters. The ordered logit model achieved a McFadden pseudo R² of 0.4155 (LR χ²(14) = 607.47, p < 0.001), with PO assumption supported (Brant p = 0.969; omodel-LR p = 0.851) and all variance inflation factors below 2.7. Efficiency emerged as the strongest predictor (β = +1.040, OR = 2.83), followed by call-center service (OR = 2.18), comfort (OR = 1.77), and convenience (OR = 1.64). Driver service was insignificant due to a ceiling effect. School-trip users showed approximately half the satisfaction odds of daily-life travelers (OR = 0.48, p = 0.012). DRT user satisfaction is shaped by perceived service quality, particularly operational efficiency and customer-support responsiveness. The clusterspecific temporal heterogeneity and school-trip dissatisfaction effect point to two operational priorities: cluster-tailored dispatch frequencies aligned with each cluster's peak hours, and targeted enhancements during school commute windows. This study provides a transferable analytical framework for evaluating DRT services in spatially heterogeneous regions, and offers empirical evidence for data-driven DRT policy design in Korea's rural-urban mixed innovation cities.
4,300원
11.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study proposes a digital twin–based simulation environment that incorporates real-time weather variations to support future research on autonomous driving and mobility simulation. Conventional traffic simulation environments typically rely on fixed scenarios, which limits their ability to capture dynamic external conditions during runtime. To address this limitation, an integrated simulation environment that couples microscopic traffic simulation with a three-dimensional virtual environment is required. The proposed environment integrates the microscopic traffic simulation platform SUMO with the 3D visualization platform Unity through an API-based data exchange interface. The target road network was modeled using field-surveyed geometry, traffic volumes, and signal operation parameters. Time-series rainfall data were fed into the system as an external input, and the saturation headway parameter was dynamically updated as a function of rainfall intensity to represent traffic flow variations under changing weather conditions. To evaluate the model's applicability, a comparative analysis was conducted between a baseline SUMO-based simulation and the proposed real-time responsive model under identical traffic and operational conditions. The results show that the proposed model continuously captured rainfall variations over time, yielding dynamic fluctuations in control delay, whereas the baseline simulation retained fixed parameter values throughout the run. Unlike conventional fixed-scenario simulations, the proposed framework enables the continuous integration of external environmental changes during simulation execution. These results demonstrate that the proposed framework successfully implements a real-time data integration structure that supports timevarying traffic operation analysis. The proposed digital twin–based simulation environment is expected to be applicable not only to traffic operation analysis under diverse weather and road conditions but also as a foundational platform for future mobility and traffic operation research.
4,200원
12.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study develops integrated evaluation indicators for demand responsive transport (DRT) operation services from a road traffic service perspective. The purpose is to support sustainable and efficient DRT service provision by considering the perspectives of users, operators, and local communities, while also reflecting road-based operational issues such as pick-up/drop-off management, curbside stopping, transfer-node linkage, and parking-demand reduction. While previous evaluations have often focused on operational efficiency, platform performance, ridership records, or user satisfaction, this study attempts to establish a comprehensive framework applicable to various DRT service types. DRT services were classified into four types according to temporal and spatial variability: shuttle-bus type, pre-call reservation type, real-time call reservation type, and dynamic call reservation type. Candidate evaluation indicators were derived through reviews of domestic and international DRT operation cases, public transport service-quality studies, MaaS performance studies, accessibility and equity evaluation studies, and existing evaluation practices. An analytic hierarchy process (AHP) survey was conducted with experts from research institutes, local governments, public agencies, and academia to identify the relative importance of indicators. The results indicate that convenience of booking methods and user satisfaction are mandatory common indicators for all DRT types. Safety, barrier-free service provision, driver courtesy and professionalism, revenue per operating cost, and operation time were identified as optional common indicators. In addition, arrival information change rate, changes in the number of users, operation distance, ride distance, service utilization rate, and parking space saving effect were suggested as type-specific indicators. The proposed indicators can support integrated monitoring of DRT operation services and provide practical information for service improvement, policy decisions, efficient public subsidy support, and road-space management.
4,000원
13.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study aims to quantitatively verify the noise reduction effectiveness of variable speed limit (VSL) control strategies prior to the development of an active road traffic noise control system. Using a microscopic traffic noise (MTN) model, real-time time-series noise levels were calculated for each speed control scenario, and the resulting noise reductions were compared. The MTN model treats each individual vehicle moving according to a car-following model as a moving noise source, and was implemented using the open-source microscopic traffic simulator SUMO. Single-vehicle experiments demonstrated that reducing the speed limit decreased the maximum noise level at a receiver 10 m from the road edge by 4.67–15.79 dB(A) for passenger cars and 0.59–13.45 dB(A) for heavy vehicles. Spatial analysis revealed that noise reduction for passenger cars decreased monotonically with receiver distance. For heavy vehicles, the maximum noise reduction occurs at an offset distance of 20–100 m from the road edge rather than at the nearest point. In the multivehicle experiment, a speed reduction from 100 to 80 km/h yielded an equivalent noise level reduction of up to 1.59 dB(A). These results, which cannot be captured by conventional macroscopic noise prediction models, demonstrate the feasibility of MTN-based active noise control and provide a quantitative basis for the design of VSL algorithms aimed at road traffic noise reduction.
4,000원
14.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
The Traffic Culture Index, published annually by the central government, measures traffic behavior at the local government level. Local governments prepare annual improvement plans based on these results, but consistent implementation is often difficult under their fiscal and administrative conditions. This study examines why improvement measures are not consistently implemented in the field by identifying three structural conditions. First, public budgets face both spatial and fiscal constraints. With limited local finances, improvement works often rely on external road-project budgets that are confined to peripheral national roads, leaving them spatially separated from urban areas where the index is actually surveyed. Second, checking whether measures have been implemented depends largely on results-oriented evaluation at the national level; hence, the implementation process is difficult to monitor closely on the ground. Third, implementation tends to depend on a single department and individual officials, which makes sustained, cross-departmental coordination difficult. To address these conditions, this paper proposes an implementation framework that complements the conventional 3E approach (engineering, education, enforcement) with three principles, termed 3C: customization, community, and cooperation. Rather than requiring new municipal budgets, the strategies utilize existing and external resources within current administrative procedures. Customization links improvement measures to ongoing local projects and embeds them within the traffic impact assessment, causer-burden provision of the Road Act, and police reviews of traffic safety facilities. Community engages local nongovernmental organizations as partners that help monitor implementation on the ground. Cooperation strengthens the coordination among departments within existing procedures. By working with existing procedures and resources, these strategies offer a practical implementation framework for local governments seeking to advance their Traffic Culture Index under limited fiscal and administrative conditions.
4,200원
15.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
This study quantitatively investigates the structural impacts of weather and air pollution factors on bus mode choice probability in Seoul. Time-series panel datasets from 2022 to 2024 were constructed by integrating hourly bus ridership data with meteorological and air quality measurements. A random forest regression model was utilized to hierarchically evaluate variable importance and directionality, while monthly independent models and k-means clustering were applied to interpret seasonal dynamics and behavioral response patterns. The empirical results indicate that the discomfort index, relative humidity, particulate matter, and ozone consistently exhibited high variable importance throughout the year, serving as crucial factors in determining bus mode selection. In particular, extreme weather conditions during the hottest and coldest months worsened the perceived outdoor thermal stress, significantly reducing the bus mode share. Conversely, precipitation, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide acted as auxiliary variables with relatively low importance across all months. Directionality analysis revealed that most environmental factors had a negative correlation with the bus mode share, reflecting commuters' aversion to outdoor exposure at bus stops. However, relative humidity and precipitation demonstrated positive relationships, indicating a mandatory constraint mechanism where travelers inevitably select buses over long-distance walking owing to dense bus stop accessibility under inclement weather. These findings imply that meteorological and air quality changes are structurally and seasonally embedded in bus transit demand, highlighting the potential for predictive, climate-responsive traffic operations. Utilizing key environmental indices, such as humidity and discomfort levels, to dynamically adjust bus-dispatch intervals could serve as an efficient public transportation management strategy in the era of climate change.
4,500원
16.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
Urban traffic congestion continues to intensify owing to rapid urbanization and growing vehicle ownership, highlighting the limitations of fixed-time signal control systems. This paper proposes a real-time traffic signal optimization framework that integrates drone-based object detection and tracking with a genetic algorithm and rolling horizon structure. Traffic data were collected at the Hakha intersection in Daejeon, South Korea, using DJI M300 RTK and Mavic 3E drones during the evening peak hours. Vehicle detection and tracking were performed using YOLOv8n and ByteTrack, achieving an average detection accuracy of 88–98% for the total approach volume and 84–94% for the through-movement volume. The extracted traffic parameters (volume, delay, and queue length) were incorporated into a multi-objective fitness function with weights determined via the analytic hierarchy process. The optimized signal plans were validated using VISSIM microsimulation against a fixed-time baseline. Results show that the proposed framework reduced the average vehicle delay by 31.4% (37.91 to 25.99 sec/veh), stop delay by 37.1%, and average queue length by 34.8% (8.41 to 5.48 m), while improving the intersection level of service from D to C without sacrificing network throughput. This study demonstrated the practical feasibility of an integrated framework combining drone-based mobile sensing and metaheuristic optimization for real-time adaptive signal control.
4,000원
17.
2026.06
구독 인증기관 무료, 개인회원 유료
Wrong-way driving (WWD) on highways is a critical traffic safety issue that often results in severe injuries and fatalities due to head-on collisions with opposing vehicles. The risk of WWD is particularly high at night because of the reduced visibility of traffic signs and roadway information. To address this issue, this study develops a smart logo-projector system capable of providing real-time traffic information to prevent nighttime WWD. First, eight message scenarios were developed based on existing wrong-way and no-entry signs, and an optimal WWD prevention message set was derived using Kansei Engineering. The results indicated that the Arrow + Diagonal information type and octagon sign shape had positive effects on drivers’ emotional responses. A smart logo-projector system and operating algorithm were developed to recognize WWD situations and surrounding traffic conditions in real time through vehicle detectors. The proposed system consists of a logo projector, sequence-based detectors, distance-based detectors, and communications technology, and provides situationresponsive warning messages according to vehicle travel direction and mainline traffic conditions. To evaluate the applicability of the proposed system, a prototype-based verification and driving simulator (DS)-based effectiveness evaluations were conducted. The prototype verification results showed approximately 95% accuracy in both verification scenarios. The DS-based evaluation results indicated that the logo projector outperformed conventional traffic signs in terms of visibility, readability, and warning effectiveness. These findings demonstrate the potential applicability of the smart logo projector as a new traffic safety facility that can complement or replace conventional traffic signs and provide a foundation for real-time traffic information systems.
4,000원
