A major history textbook for high schools, A Modern History of Korea for High School (Seoul: Kumsung Publishing House, 2007) described that Protestantism in Korea supported Japanese invasion to Korea. The text book has been used for many years by more than 50% high schools in South Korea. The argument of this book is very important because it might influence over high school students who think that the text book should always be correct. However, Protestantism in Korea was not the supporter of the Japan Empire in the turn-of-twentieth century Asia. In reality, Korea Protestantism had been appeared by Korean people as defender of Korean people against Japanese power. At that time Korea protestantism had been closely related to America which send their missionaries to Korea and helped its modernization. When Japan tried to put Korea in her power, King KoJong sent his envoy to the president Roosevelt of USA for help to maintain his independence. In reality, Japan government had considered Korean Protestantism as big obstacle for its rule over Korea. Japan had always be afraid of Korean Christianity and spied over it. Japanese army in 1911 arrested 105 important Christian leaders to destroy Korean churches. Also, in the last years of Japan imperialism, Japan governor-general of Korea expelled American missionaries from Korean peninsular to disconnect Korean Christian relationship with America. Finally, missionaries tried to maintain the principle of separation between church and state in Korea. They did not involve in political matter either on Korean nationalism or Japanese imperialism. This attitude of missionaries could not be satisfied with Japanese as well as Korean. However, they thought that their original mission in Korea is evangelization, but not independent movement of Korea.

Unlike the interpretations of some scholars, John Wesley did not have a fundamentalist world view, in which faith ignores or isolates scientific truth, as most revivalists are thought to have. Wesley tried to learn, understand, and use newly introduced scientific knowledge, information, and development. He was so eager to inform his followers of scientific truth as to write his own Compendium of Natural Philosophy, and revised and published it several times. Wesley was more familiar with the term natural philosophy rather than natural science, and he thought he was doing philosophy as universal knowledge. It is, however, hard to say that Wesley was simply an advocate of scientism. Wesley accepted scientific realities in the world, and he thought that the task of science is to describe the measurable and experimental facts and their processes and history. Wesley expected that the original intents and goals of the facts would be answerable by theology. In this sense, Wesley pointed out that the spot to answer all questions beyond science is the starting point of theology. In his thought, science and theology are well balanced, harmonized, and helpful for each other. Firstly, Wesley argued that science is the ground of theology, and the basis of theology. He believed that knowledge of the natural world leads people to faith in and study of God, the Creator and the Provider. On the basis of science, Wesley expected to begin the theology of creation and providence. He did not try to explain the nooks and crannies of facts with the verses from the Bible, because he thought that the mystery and awe is also part of science. He had such an optimistic view of science that he published a book of medical treatments for his preachers. Secondly, for Wesley science could be a ground in his eschatology. Especially, that the old Wesley was interested in natural science shows his expectation for the future, the new heaven and earth, and preparation for his own death. All the things which are mysteries and puzzle us now, believed Wesley, will be explained, understood, and solved in the end. Finally, Wesley’s science implied ethical requirements. As a minister, he tried to persuade his people to be “stewards” keeping the created world and restoring the corrupted parts with God’s grace. Wesley himself got involved in such issues as slavery, education, and female participation in ministry. In this sense, his theology as well as science showed somewhat radical and advanced aspects which some contemporary readers might be hesitant to follow.

Der deutsche lutherische Pietismus war eine einflussreiche Strömung, die John Wesley eine bestimmte theologische Orientierung gab. Diese Untersuchung erläutert den Einfluss bzw. möglichen Einfluss der frühen deutschen lutherischen Pietisten auf Wesley, indem verfolgt wird, was er von den relevanten Quellen der Pietisten wusst und wie er sie nutzte. Wesley gewann die Ideen für die Religion des Herzens oder der innerlichen Religion und dem heiligen Leben vom lutherischen Pietismus. Auch Wesleys methodistische Struktur wurde in gewisser Weise durch das, was er bei den Modellen der Spener-Halle Pietisten beobachtete, beeinflusst, während die methodistische Struktur im Vergleich zu der der Pietisten eher “connexional” war. Wesley war sehr von den Bemühungen Johann Arndts beeindruckt, der versuchte, die Rechtfertigung und die Heiligkeit in seinen Bücher vom wahren Christentum miteinander zu verbinden. Wesley stand unter bedeutendem, wenn auch indirektem Einfluss von Phillip Jakob Spener, der auf die innerliche Religion und auf das Praktische, auf die biblische Theologie, und auf die Vermeidung des unnötigen dogmatischen Streitgesprächs und auf die Entwicklung von kleinen Gruppen großen Wert legte. Wesley las viele Schriften von August Hermann Francke wie z.B. Pietas Hallensis, Nicodemus, Christus sacrae scripturae nucleus oder Manuductio ad lectionem scripturae sacrae, und er folgte dem eindrucksvollen Beispiel der Halle Pietisten, nämlich des Waisenhauses und der Ausbildung. Wesley lernte von den Pietisten, wie wichtig die Rolle der Laien und deren Ausbildung, in Bezug auf die Entwicklung des geistigen Lebens ist. Er wurde außerdem von der Disziplin der Halle Pietisten und ihrer Begeisterung für die Mission stark beeindruckt.

This paper examines a distinctive Christian slogan, “What would Jesus do?” which was emerged from Charles Sheldon’s social gospel novel, In His Steps (1897). This book eventually became one of the most influential bestseller during the last century. It is known that In His Steps has sold more than thirty million copies. However, this important Christian legacy has generally been ignored by the academic scholarship. The goal of this research is to rediscover a popular old evangelical heritage. How has this “sappy” “popular” novel received such a massive response from the ordinary readers generation by generation. I examine the history of the birth and reception of In His Steps, examining the Christian literary culture in author’s time. Also, I analyze and evaluate the contents and messages in this novel. What could be the author wanted to tell through this fictional narrative? Which portraits of Jesus are described in this book and in the slogan, “What would Jesus do?” Is it really possible for today’s Christians to follow in Jesus’ steps through asking this question, as the author suggested in the story? I discuss theological and ethical validity of Sheldon’s “imitation ethics.” I define that Sheldon’s message was an evangelical social gospel influenced by the holiness evangelicalism of his era. Sheldon believed that Jesus’ teaching should be applied to government and that the church has a definite responsibility for social reform. However, evangelical readers in the 20th century ignored the “social gospel” spirit in this book, only accepting his emphasis of personal morality and piety. However, in both Sheldon’s social gospel message and the recent evangelical movement, popular media are actively used to embrace the question, “What would Jesus do?” Sheldon aimed to “make religion interesting.” His writing of religious fiction was only for presenting and spreading gospel message, not creating interesting plots nor producing literary masterpiece. Scholars has criticized that Sheldon’s novels are too naive and sentimental with the lack of realistic anthropology. Surely his optimistic idealism overlooked the gray part of complex human life, simply dividing a (good) christian way from a (evil) secular way. However, his suggestion does not primarily aim for the possibility of following in Jesus’ steps, but for the motif of Christian life. It is a spiritual technique for devoted Christians with seriously asking what Jesus would do in one’s context. It is not for the “right” decisionmaking but for a disciplinary method, expecting the presence of the Holy Spirit. It is appropriate that Stanley Grenz expressed Sheldon’s imitation ethics as an “evangelical autonomy.” His imitation ethics observe that devotion to Christ unifies faithful Christians with their cosmic Master in the deepest aspect of their personhood. Sheldon strived for “social reform” through individual transformation, which is the very message of his religious fiction.

Thomas explained God the Trinity using the entis analogia in the revelation of the Bible and didn’t try to prove it. The recognition of the Trinity was fundamentally given through revelation, yet it was exposed by means of analogies from anthropology(word and love). When he elucidated the Trinity, he used the psychological analogy of Augustine as the principle, with the Aristotelian philosophy and entis analogia and the medieval analysis of language. He was focused on the explanation of the person in the Trinity. And The origin and relation of person, the discussion of the person itself, the exposition of the each person, the comparison of essence, relation, and origin with person, the comparison among the persons, and mission of person were discussed in the questions 27-43 of Summa Theologia I. Focusing the explanation of the person in the discussion of the Trinity, he criticized the three erroneous opinions in reference with the Trinity. First of all, the heresies of Arius and Sabellius fell into an error by understanding the procession as the outer procession. Second, Gilbert misunderstood God’s simplicity by separating the deus and divinity. He proposed the relation as auxiliary. But Thomas proposed that essence and person and relation are the same, yet they are distinct one another as the mode of human expression. We didn’t recognize God as it is, but according to the mode of human recognition. Third, he criticized Bonaventura who counted the unbegotteness as the principle of Fatherhood. He proposed the relation as the important principle of Fatherhood.

The paper analyzes the concept of love in St. Augustine’s De Confessione, in which Augustine makes use of an analogy of human love in to describe the ineffable nature of the divine love. Augustine presents a theological reflection on the phenomena of human love: sin and concupiscence. Augustine demonstrates how he could overcome such spiritual desperation and sinful desire. Augustine could not solve the problem of sexual passion by way of Ciceronian philosophy, Manichaean dualism or Platonic philosophy until his heart surrendered to a full determination (at the garden of Milan). Although Augustine expresses remorse about the depravity of his erotic love, he utilizes the language of sexual love to express the divine love. Augustine confesses that concupiscence is the prevailing aspect of the misdirected love. Augustine could not escape from the tyranny of concupis-cence. and experienced a self-disintegration because of addiction and despair. Augustine reached the true face of evil. Augustine claims that evil is not merely evil acts but the very will to violate God’s goodness. Evil begot habit; habit produced necessity. Augustine could not free himself from the necessity: the compulsion of two opposing wills. The sick heart must be healed before enjoying the divine love. All modes of love should surrender before the divine love, because the latter is the creator of the former. The divine love is beautiful. It is the source of satisfaction. Augustine’s rhetoric depicts the beauty of the divine love with the images of fire, flower, and other created things. The divine love is the healer of a human soul which is sickened by desiring the created things such as money, sex, and power. Augustine’s soul found rest in the bosom of the divine love.

For a long time John Calvin was understood mainly as theologian, but he understood himself as doctor and pastor. To both ministries he believed that he was directly called by God and performed his ministry with honor and sincerity. Against Cardinal Sadoleto’s sharp questioning on his qualifications as pastor, Calvin declared that his calling came from God and believed his destiny to be similar to that of the Old Testaments Prophets, who were personally and unconditionally called by God, and delivered God’s message by the help of the Spirit. Therefore, unlike the Catholic priests, he became a pastor without endorsement from church authority via an ordination ceremony. As Alexander Ganozy contested, Calvin seemed to consider the calling of the local church and his actual function as pastor to be the most effective way to become a pastor. This may be scandalous to some modern Christians who are familiar with grand ordination ceremonies, but omission of ordination can be understood as a sensible choice for Calvin when the Protestant Reformers already broke with the tradition of the Roman Catholic Church. Upon returning to Geneva Calvin ministered churches with the fourfold ministry system-pastor, doctor, elder and deacon. Among pastoral duties preaching and teaching the Word was a primary responsibility. However, teaching the Word was not enough; the Word has to be realized in the actual life of believers. Calvin espoused the three marks of believers (notae fidelium) - confession of faith, example of life, regular participation in sacraments-and it is noted in this article that Calvin’s understanding of the pastor’s role is to assist his parishioners to bear those marks. To make this happen pastors cannot work by themselves. The nature of ideal ministry which Calvin advocated in Geneva was collegial and cooperative. He insisted in forming the Geneva Consistory and worked closely with elders in caring, educating, and discipling newly-converted Protestant Genevans. Furthermore, Calvin also started the Company of Pastors in Geneva with the purpose of enhancing pastor’s intellectual and spiritual quality, and further holding each other’s morality in check. In regard to the Company of Pastors this article introduced its five functions largely based upon Robert Kingdon’s observations: (1) examination of pastoral candidates; (2) member’s education; (3) mutual criticism; (4) mission work; (5) almsgiving, especially for French refugees at the time. Although Calvin himself did not go through the ordination ceremony, he devised a procedure and protocol with which a pastor may be examined by the Company and church, and eventually appointed by the city council. Once appointed, the pastor was in close communication and check with fellow pastors of the city and its suburbs. Calvin’s own understanding of himself as pastor and his practices as pastor offer some lessons to modern pastors and churches such as a thorough examination process for pastoral candidates and organized collegial relationships between pastors.