This paper aims at showing Calvin’s position against Jews. In Calvinstudies it is admitted that it is difficult to present his perspective about Jews, because it is unlikely that Calvin had met any Jews in France. In addition, he never wrote any books or texts on the Jewish people in his life. There is only one text that has been published after his death. Therefore, I will divide his life in to three parts, and then I analyse his texts and his biblical commentaries published during his life. I observe his attitude toward the Jews as a chosen people in the Old Testament and the Jews living in his contemporary. In this analysis I present that Calvin’s position has changed. In other words, this means that there is a linguistic difference between his books and his biblical commentaries published in his lifetime and the text ‘Ad quaestiones et obiecta cuiusdam repsonsio’ published after his death. Therefore, by tracing the date of this text, I will attempt to show the reasons, why Calvin had changed.

Timothy Richard(1845-1919), a Welsh missionary, acted as the spearhead of the missionaries in China who were interested in the reform of the late Qing society. Being sent by the Baptist Missionary Society, he worked in the areas including North China and Shanghai from 1870 to 1916 and his works included relief, literature, education, and social reform as well as evangelism. Sublating the hagiographical writings on him published in the first decades following his death and the socialist historiography utterly criticizing him as the agent of imperialism from the other side, this study tries to take a look both at his missionary motivation for the reform of Chinese society and politics and at his problematic toleration of the imperialistic Western Powers that was implied in his suggestions. Richard was convinced that Western civilization was benefited from the discovery of “the workings of God in Nature.” Communicating with the highest Chinese officials like Zhang Zidong and Li Hongzhang of the Self-Strengthening Movement, which was started in the 1860s, he made an effort to provide the society with scientific education and reform ideas in many areas including agriculture, industry, commerce, transportation, education, and religious education. Serving as the general secretary of the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese (SDK/SDCGK) since 1891, he had a great opportunity to help the Chinese society with writing essays, translating books, publishing books and periodicals. Especially, his translation of History of Nineteenth Century and the periodical titled The Review of the Times edited by Young J. Allen were very popular among the Chinese intellectuals seeking the ways to reform Chinese society. It is important to note that, in terms of the ideology of reform, he did not agree on the overriding Chinese motto of reform, ‘zhong-ti-si-yong,’ which meant ‘the Chinese in mindset and the Western in technology.’ Rather, his idea started from the Western Civilization, not Chinese traditional value system. His suggestion was based on his conviction that Western civilization, comprising of the materialistic development based on natural sciences and ‘the true Christian civilization,’ was superior to Chinese civilization. Thus, his suggestion tends to be a universal reform including modernization, opening of the nation to foreign nations, improvement in commerce and international trades, Western education in sciences, and toleration of Christian education. Even though he did not deny the classical education coming from Chinese tradition and only did ask adding Western subjects to the current education, his respect for Chinese tradition rather came from missiological considerations and his reform ideas came from Western and Christian influences. Furthermore, at the base of Richard’s political activism was his evangelical conviction that made him a missionary to China. In addition to his evangelical faith, through his experiences in China, he developed a type of social gospel emphasizing the Kingdom of God seeking for the salvation of both ‘body’ and ‘soul’ and both ‘individuals’ and ‘nation.’ His effort of reform was at its peak at the 1898 Reform Movement, in which the young rising reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao co-operated with the Emperor Guangxu to drive forward more progressive reforms following after the Chinese’s defeat at the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). He was very influential to the top leaders of the movement in many directions. However, a series of foudroyant ideas that he suggested were not accepted or administered by the leaders and the Court. For example, he suggested 1) a protectorate by the Powers, 2) an annexation or union of China with Japan, the United States, and the British Empire at least in some areas including defence and diplomacy, and 3) a united cabinet with the same number of Chinese and foreign representatives. His ideas were shared by Chinese officials and, in fact, even some similar ideas were coined by Chinese themselves in the great crisis of the fall of the Empire in the encroachments by imperialist Western Powers. His ideas listed above, in spite of the consideration of the context, had implications of Western colonialism trespassing Chinese sovereignty. They especially show the lack of his understanding in the commercial expansion of the Western colonialists. However, despite this point, it does not seem that he was directly connected to the officials or colonialists of the Britain or other Western countries. His idea of protectorate, annexation, or united cabinet was foreign to the current British position in diplomacy. In conclusion, Richard’s reform idea, first, came from his revised evangelical faith including the idea of the Kingdom of God and missiological consideration seeking for cultural adaptation. second, he contributed to the late Qing reform movement in promoting the discourse of reform and educating the younger reformers. Third, his reform had limitations due to his own political and cultural identities as a British subject. He, in his imperialists-friendly suggestions, came to be in the line of supporting the Western colonialists and he never approached republican ideas, which some progressive Chinese already had in their mind by the end of the century.

This paper is to survey what are the historical background that the Pierson family since their Viking ancestors to the descendents of Arthur Tappan Pierson and their educational contributions that they have made, through analysing a family line of A. T. Pierson’s direct ancestors. The Pierson family deserves scholars’ attention for their important influence in an early history of the establishment of two famous American universities as well as a bible school, which became a university later, in Korea. Thus it will explore how their ancestors’ Puritan value has been succeeded to their descendants and realized by them.

The object of this study is to investigate the main outline of Sujeong Lee’s thoughts of Christian faith and passionate efforts for mission to Korea from the viewpoint of the history of Christian mission through his two articles, “Confession of Faith” and “Conditions in Korea”. Sujeong Lee who became an associate member of the Korean delegation to Japan, headed by Younghyo Park(朴泳孝) arrived in Japan on September 29, 1882. He met Dr. Tsudasen(津田山), a Japanese scholar of agriculture. And he was much impressed by Tsudasen’s deep-rooted faith and sincere piety to God. As a result, he had so much interest in Christianity and dedicated to studying the Bible and various Christian books. By studying these books, he sought after the essential truth of the Christian faith. Through Japanese faithful Christians he was brought into contact with George W. Knox, Robert S. Maclay and Henry Loomis who were pioneer missionaries in Japan. And on April 29, 1883, he was examined by Yaskawa(安川亨) and baptized by George W. Knox. While he was in Japan, he devoted himself to various Christian activities and studied Christian doctrine to increase his knowledge of Christian truth and faith. As soon as Sujeong Lee found a new truth and sublime faith in Christianity, he was eager to propagate the Gospel to Korea from the bottom of his heart. When he believed in Jesus Christ he confessed his faith to the missionaries and Japanese Christians through the famous article(“Confession of Faith”, ｢信仰告白書｣) that he wrote with all his heart and soul in May 1883. And then, seven months later, he wrote another remarkable article (“Conditions in Korea”, ｢宣敎師派送呼訴文｣) on December 13, 1883 to appeal to American Christians for mission to Korea. From the viewpoint of the history of Christian mission, the main thoughts and principles Sujeong Lee left behind us through “Confession of Faith” and “Conditions in Korea” could be summarized as follows: ① the principle of ‘internal combustion & extension’: There is organic corelation between Sujeong Lee’s internal faith and practical efforts for mission to Korea. ② triple methodology of effective mission for Korea: ‘Bible translationestablishment of church-inviting missionaries’ ③ conservative faith: Sujeong Lee stressed the belief of apostolic faith, sola scriptura, sola gratia, and sola fide. ④ plea for mission to Korea: Sujeong Lee was called a Korean Macedonian, since he had showed strongly his earnest desire for American Christians to send their missionaries to Korea. ⑤ indignity of mission: Sujeong Lee, the native Korean fully committed himself to the ministry of translating the Bible into the Korean language. ⑥ attempt to provide efficient policy for early mission to Korea: Sujeong Lee put a strong emphasis on Christian education. ⑦ mission initiated by Korean: Sujeong Lee was the pioneer Korean Christian. From the viewpoint of the history of Christian mission, his great practical efforts for mission to Korea could be summarized as followes: First, he translated the Bible into his native language. When Henry Loomis, the American Bible Society directing manager in Japan had asked Sujeong Lee to undertake the translation of the Gospels into Korean, he was pleased to accept it. He then began, with the help of Chinese and Japanese Bibles, to translate the Scriptures into Korean such as ‘Hyeon To Han Han Shinyak Seong Seo’(4 Gospels and Acts, 1884), ‘The Gospel of Mark’(‘Shinyak Maga Bokeumseo Eonhae’, 1885), ‘The Gospel of Luke’(1885), ‘Romans’(1885) and so on. He believed with absolute certainty that the Korean Bible would be an effective means for extending the true Gospel to Korea without distortion. And he also expected that the Korean Bible would provide an effective tool for the early missionaries to propagate the Gospel to Korea. Horace G. Underwood, Henry G. Appenzeller and William B. Scranton, coming to Korea through Japan, had in their hands ‘Shinyak Maga Bokeumseo Eonhae’ in the Korean language. Second. he shared the Gospel with Korean students in Tokyo and opened the Korean Sabbath School in 1883 for Christian education. He taught them the Bible and the Westminster Shorter Catechism. Third, he appealed to American Christians for mission to Korea. He showed actively his ardent desire to send American missionaries to his motherland as soon as possible. So he was called a Korean Macedonian. As a result of his efforts, the first ordained American missionaries, Horace G. Underwood and Henry G. Appenzeller came to Korea on April 5, 1885. These practical efforts for mission to Korea show that the early Christian mission activities in Korea was started by Sujeong Lee, the pioneer Korean Christian.

In 1916 had come Dr. Frank W. Scofield as a Medical Professor at the Severance Medical College in Korea. In 1958 after the reacquisition of independence he visited Korea again but as a state guest, and then acquired the Korean citizenship. His love of Korea and the Korean People has been same now and then. His life as such can be evaluated with threefold frame of reference from Korean Church History. First, he was a Christian man of nationalistic movement for the Korean independence. He contributed for enhancing it in publicizing throughout the whole world the real features of the movement by means of the pictures which he had taken at the very spots of the March-First Independence Movement at the request of Kap-Sung Lee, one of the 33 national representatives. Besides, he visited and took care of many Koreans who had been suffered from severe punishment because of joining it. During this time he heard fact of Japanese putting Koreans to the brutal and barbarous tortures, which caused him to call out for stopping such things to the Japanese authority. It was very meaningful in relation with the movement that he visited the place of massacre at Chaiamm-ni during this time and reported its misery to the whole world, and that he aroused global interest in the Korean independence. He was banished from Korea under the pressure of Japanese regime because of his support of the Independence Movement. Second, he was a church reformer who succeeded the spirit of the Independence Movement. Dr. Scofield saw a real state of the Korean Church. He hoped that she should return to and stay all the time in the spirit of the movement. He diagnosed her as corrupted in an article with the title ‘Korean Church, Yesterday and Today’ in <Christianity Thought>printed in March 1961. According to Dr. Scofield, the Korean Church, 40 years ago, was devoted to the Bible-study and was alive with a self-sacrificing spirit. But she at that time became secularized and lost power of sanctification. Dr. Scofield emphasized on the fact that she should restore the spirit of the March-First Independence Movement 40 years ago. Third, he has been a medical missionary and educator who accomplishes his mission at his own expense. At the first time, he had come to Korea as a missionary of the Canadian Presbyterian Church, but after reacquisition of the Independence he discarded relationship with any other foreign missionary societies. Though in such a status, he accomplished his mission with self support. Along with the main job of teaching at universities, he grouped young students and led them in the Bible study for hoping them to become future leaders of Korea. Also, he supported regularly social welfare organizations and provided the poor students with scholarship, so that they could complete their education. While he himself lived a thrift way of life, he practiced completely non-possessive life style for the sake of his neighbors. It was faithful living up to his conviction on the Christian value as such that made him fulfilled a admirable life. In short, his whole life manifested a true way of sharing, caring, and praying. His direct involvement in the Korean Independence Movement and missionary works is so marvelous as to one human being. However, the Korean Church has been neglecting in the right evaluation. As for me the only reason for that is due to his independent missionary works as of lay person outside of any denominational relation. Now, it is the urgent task that the Korean Church is to explore his life and thought, and to apply them to herself.

When Japan withdrew from South Korea, the South Korean society had to solve several urgent issues. These issues included how to replace the vacancy of Japanese leadership and how to realize and accomplish “a new system of democracy,” which even Japan had not developed yet. The burden of solving these problems naturally fell on Christianity since American missionaries had already brought up many potential nationalistic leaders through modern education. Since many Christians were recognized as the main body of a national movement and there were countless students who had studied abroad that were Christians, Christianity created a stable relationship with the United States. Furthermore, the close contact between Korean churches and American churches was more than enough to support this stability. However, this did not mean that Christianity fully dominated Korean politics; at that time the strong influence of indigenous religions of Korea that had greatly contributed to the independence movement of Korea could not be ignored. Right after the liberation of Korea, the Korean political situation was filled with conflicts between Christianity and native religious forces such as Dajonggyo and Chundogyo(The Heavenly Way) as well as other conflicts among Christian nationalists divided between two forces known as the Kihoand the Northwest. Such conflicts had been incessant since the creation of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Koreain Shanghai. The ideological conflicts between Christianity and native religions continued until the era of former President Park Jung Hee. Even though he professed Christian national salvation and American democracy, Rhee Sung Man stuck to his nationalism that Korean Christianity denied. He did not carry out the ideal of American democracy based on Christianity. It was because he chose Ilminjui(One People Theory) from Daejonggyo for his ruling ideology even though he selected a few Christian members who followed him. In Yun who was under the tradition of Christian nationalists, anti-Japanese or anti-communism sentiments can be found so easily, but any narrow nationalism cannot be discernible. Neither did he have any intention to accept dictatorship through the notion of a national father or long-term seizure of power. He thought that democracy could not be an instrument for nationalism; liberal democracy is the universal value that cannot be divided racially or regionally. He regarded these thoughts as coming from Christianity. In the meantime, the conflicts within the Democratic Party, namely between the old line and the new line was that between the traditional Northwest and the Kiho. Thus the conflicts between Jang Meon and Yun Posun had this history. The Kiho nationalists which were classified as the old line resisted against the Northwest nationalists which were classified as the new line because of their unilateral monopoly. The historical conflicts since the Shanghai Government continued this far.

This paper will be focused on a methodological position of the historical materials. According to the results of the current researches, man has dealt with this question in two directions as the following: the perspectives of historical theology and church history. However, this resolution makes to put each of the disciplines in a intermediate position between these two extremes, or at best in one of the two. Now, for the raised question, psychoanalytical elements should be considered in the whole process of the reconstructing historical fact, because these have been involved in every of the four steps from happening of historical events to reconstruction of the historical realty. The interpretation of the historical materials needs the so-called “paradigm shift” of the methodology. Finally, this will allow to go beyond the limits of the deficiency of the historical materials.